Abstract
Marginalized actors began to create an autonomous global network that would challenge the incumbent regime. After the WHO eradicated smallpox, many Western and South Asian medical professionals hoped to eradicate avoidable blindness. Public health, ophthalmology, and other professionals from India, Nepal, Israel, the UK, the USA, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Australia formed strong personal and professional links. They began an autonomous global network with specific advocacy goals and a cognitive rule to eradicate and control blindness that guided their future efforts. Their relationships informed their creation of: a new multilateral nonprofit, non-governmental organization called the International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness, and the WHO Prevention of Blindness program. They utilized their own interpretations of Dr. Patricia E. Bath’s concept of community ophthalmology to create plans for eye health care in rural areas of the global south.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Agarwal, L. 1977. “National Programme for Prevention of Visual Impairment and Control of Blindness.” Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 25 (4): 1–5.
Arnold, David. 2005. “Europe, Technology, and Colonialism in the 20th Century.” History and Technology: An International Journal 21 (1): 85–106.
Bath, Patricia Era. 1976. “Rationale for a Program in Community Ophthalmology.” Paper presented at the American Public Health Association, Miami, FL.
———. 1978. “Blindness Prevention through Programs of Community Ophthalmology in Developing Countries.” XXIII Concilium Ophthalmologicum, Kyoto, International Congress Series No. 450, 2 (May): 1913–15.
———. 1979. “Rationale for a Program in Community Ophthalmology.” Journal of the National Medical Association 71: 145.
Bath, Patricia E., C. O. Quarcoopome, and Taj H. Kirmani. 1983. “Community Ophthalmology Plan for Underserved Populations.” ACTA XXIV International Congress of Ophthalmology 2: 13–17.
Bhattacharya, Sanjoy. 2006. “Universalist Claims Selective Upgrades The Complexities of Health Policy Reformulations in India 1947–1960.” In Expunging Variola: The Control and Eradication of Smallpox in India, 1947–1977, 12–44. New Delhi: Orient Longman.
Bijker, Wiebe E. 1987. “The Social Construction of Bakelite: Toward a Theory of Invention.” In The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, edited by Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas Parke Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch, 155–82. MIT Press.
Brilliant, L. B., R. P. Pokhrel, N. C. Grasset, J. M. Lepkowski, A. Kolstad, W. Hawks, R. Pararajasegaram, G. E. Brilliant, S. Gilbert, and S. R. Shrestha. 1985. “Epidemiology of Blindness in Nepal.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 63 (2): 375–86.
Chand, Priyankar Bahadur, and Ramesh Kharel. 2015. “Politics of Primary Health Care in Nepal.” In Health for All: The Journey of Universal Health Coverage, edited by Alexander Medcalf, Sanjoy Bhattacharya, Hooman Momen, Monica Saavedra, and Margaret Jones, 35–44. Hyderabad, Telangana, India: Orient Blackswan.
Elliot, Robert H. 1917. The Indian Operation of Couching for Cataract. London, UK: H. K. Lewis and Co. Ltd. The Foundation of the American Academy of Ophthalmology Museum of Vision & Ophthalmic Heritage. San Francisco, CA.
Fenner, Frank, Donald Ainslie Henderson, Isao Arita, ZdenEk JeZek, and Ivan Danilovich Ladnyi. 1988. “Chapter 15: India and the Himalayan Area.” In Smallpox and Its Eradication, History of International Public Health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Foster, Allen, and Serge Resnikoff. 2005. “The Impact of Vision 2020 on Global Blindness.” Eye 19 (10): 1133–35.
Geels, Frank W. 2005. “Conceptual Perspective on Sytems Innovations and Technological Transitions.” In Technological Transitions and System Innovations: A Co-evolutionary and Socio-Technical Analysis, 75–102. Cheltenham and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
Geels, Frank W., and Johan Schot. 2007. “Typology of Sociotechnical Transition Pathways.” Research Policy 36 (3): 399–417.
Goldner, Melinda. 2004. “The Dynamic Interplay between Western Medicine and the Complementary and Alternative Medicine Movement: How Activists Perceive a Range of Responses from Physicians and Hospitals.” Sociology of Health & Illness 26 (6): 710–36.
Hachhethu, Krishna. 2003. “Democracy And Nationalism: Interface Between State And Ethnicity In Nepal.” Contributions to Nepali Studies 30 (2): 21–252.
Harris, Joseph. 2015. “Who Governs? Autonomous Political Networks as a Challenge to Power in Thailand.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 45 (1): 3–25.
Henderson, Donald A. 2008. “Smallpox: Dispelling the Myths. An Interview with Donald Henderson.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 86 (12): 909–88.
Hess, David J. 2007. Alternative Pathways in Science and Industry: Activism, Innovation, and the Environment in an Era of Globalization. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
———. 2016. Undone Science: Social Movements, Mobilized Publics, and Industrial Transitions. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Heydon, Susan. 2011. “Medicines, Travellers and the Introduction and Spread of ‘Modern’ Medicine in the Mt Everest Region of Nepal.” Medical History 55 (4): 503–21.
Hughes, Thomas Parke. 1987. “The Evolution of Large Technological Systems.” In The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, edited by Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas Parke Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch, 51–82. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
IAPB. 1982. “International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness 2nd General Assembly, New Horizons, Washington, DC. October 24–28, 1982.” GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-20. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai, India.
———. 1986. “International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness 3rd General Assembly, A Decade of Progress, New Delhi, India December 6–11, 1986.” GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-20. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai, India.
———. 1990. “International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness 4th General Assembly, Sustainable Strategies—Agenda for the 1990s, Kenyatta International Conference Center, Nairobi, Kenya, November 11–15, 1990.” GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-20. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai, India.
———. 1994. “International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness 5th General Assembly, Towards Affordable, Accessible, Appropriate Eye Care, International Conference Center, Berlin, Germany, May 8–13, 1994.” Berlin, Germany: International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness. GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-20. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai, India.
———. 1995 [1974]. “IAPB Constitution.” West Sussex: International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness. GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-20. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai, India.
———. 2004. “Introduction: What Is IAPB?” IAPB-What Is IAPB. http://www.iapb.org/wat_iapb.htm.
———. 2016. “IAPB History.” IAPB History | International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness. http://www.iapb.org/about-iapb/iapb-history.
———. 2018a. “VISION 2020: The Right to Sight- IAPB.” International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness. 2018. https://www.iapb.org/vision-2020/.
———. 2018b. “IAPB Regions.” IAPB. 2018. https://www.iapb.org/iapb-regions/.
International Health Conference. 1948. “WHO Constitution.” In Summary Report on Proceedings, Minutes and Final Acts of the International Health Conference Held in New York from 19 June to 22 July 1946, 100–9. New York: United Nations, World Health Organization, Interim Commission. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85573.
Johns, Alan. 1990. “The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness and Non-Governmental Organisations: An Effective Network.” International Ophthalmology 14 (3): 227–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00158323.
Johnson, Gordon J. 1989. “Community Ophthalmology. By Syed Modasser Ali, pp. 144. Tk.150. Anamoy: Bangladesh. 1985.” The British Journal of Ophthalmology 73 (7): 583.
Johnson, Ryan. 2008. “Tabloid Brand Medicine Chests: Selling Health and Hygiene for the British Tropical Colonies.” Science As Culture 17 (3): 249–68.
Jose, R., and Damodar Bachani. 1995. “World Bank-Assisted Cataract Blindness Control Project.” Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 43 (1): 35.
Knapp, Alfred. 1908. “On Extraction of Cataract in the Capsule: Report of a Visit to Major Henry Smith in Jullunder, India.” Arch Ophthalmol 190 (37): 13–15. San Francisco, CA: The Foundation of the American Academy of Ophthalmology Museum of Vision & Ophthalmic Heritage.
Kupfer, Carl. 1987. “Public Health Ophthalmology.” The British Journal of Ophthalmology 71 (2): 116–17.
Kupfer, Carl, and Edward H. McManus. 2009. History of the National Eye Institute: 1968–2000. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health National Eye Institute.
Latour, Bruno. 1987. Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Leaver, Peter. 2009. “Obituaries: Professor Barrie R. Jones CBE Bsc (NZ) FRCS (Eng) FRCP (Lon) Hon FRACS.” Retrieved February 25, 2013. http://www.moorfields.nhs.uk/Healthprofessionals/MoorfieldsAlumniAssociation/Alumninews/Obituaries.
Madras Medical College. n.d. “Madras Medical College ::: ASSOCIATED INSTITUTIONS: Regional Institute of Ophthalmology Institution History.” Directorate of Medical Education, Government of Tamil Nadu. Accessed February 22, 2018. http://www.mmc.ac.in/mmc/content_page.jsp?sq1=eye&sqf=404.
Manandhar, Tri Ratna. 2005. “British Residents at the Court of Nepal During the 19th Century.” Voice of History 20 (1): 5–22.
Manikutty, Sankaran, and Neharika Vohra. 2004. Aravind Eye Care System: Giving Them the Most Precious Gift. Ahmedabad: Indian Institute of Management.
Marasini, Babu Ram. 2003. “Health and Hospital Development in Nepal: Past and Present.” Journal of Nepal Medical Association 42 (149): 306–11.
Marseille, Elliot. 1994. “Intraocular Lenses, Blindness Control, and the Hiding Hand.” In Rethinking the Development Experience: Essays Provoked by the Work of Albert O. Hirschman, edited by Lloyd Rodwin and Donald A. Schön, 147–75. Washington, DC and Cambridge, MA: Brookings Institution and Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
Martin, Douglas. 1999. “J.F. Wilson, 80, Whose Work Saved Millions From Blindness.” The New York Times, December 6, sec. World. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/06/world/jf-wilson-80-whose-work-saved-millions-from-blindness.html.
Mehta, Pavithra K., and Suchitra Shenoy. 2011. Infinite Vision: How Aravind Became the World’s Greatest Business Case for Compassion. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Metcalfe, J. Stanley, Andrew James, and Andrea Mina. 2005. “Emergent Innovation Systems and the Delivery of Clinical Services: The Case of Intra-Ocular Lenses.” Research Policy 34 (9): 1283–304.
Moore, Kelly. 1999. “Political Protest and Institutional Change: The Anti-Vietnam War Movement and American Science.” In How Social Movements Matter, edited by Marco Giugni, Doug McAdam, and Charles Tilly, 10: 97–118. University of Minnesota Press.
———. 2006. “Powered by the People: Scientific Authority in Participatory Science.” In The New Political Sociology of Science: Institutions, Networks, and Power, edited by Scott Frickel and Kelly Moore. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Mooreville, Anat. 2016. “Eyeing Africa: The Politics of Israeli Ocular Expertise and International Aid, 1959–1973.” Jewish Social Studies 21 (3): 31–71.
Murthy, G. V. S., Sanjeev K. Gupta, Neena John, and Praveen Vashist. 2008. “Current Status of Cataract Blindness and Vision 2020: The Right to Sight Initiative in India.” Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 56 (6): 489.
Mushtaq, Muhammad Umair. 2009. “Public Health in British India: A Brief Account of the History of Medical Services and Disease Prevention in Colonial India.” Indian Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine 34 (1): 6–14.
Nair, Aparna. 2017. “‘They Shall See His Face’: Blindness in British India, 1850–1950.” Medical History 61 (2): 181–99.
NNJS. 2015. “Nepal Netra Jyoti Sangh (NNJS).” http://nnjs.org.np.
Ocular Surgery News Asia Pacific Edition. 2002. “India’s Government Tackles Challenges of Eye Care.” Ocular Surgery News Asia Pacific Edition, March. http://www.healio.com/news/print/ocular-surgery-news-europe-asia-edition/%7B718ad951-a6e3-403d-9f92-9c34e8c06c72%7D/indias-government-tackles-challenges-of-eye-care.
Packard, Randall M. 2016. A History of Global Health Interventions into the Lives of Other Peoples. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Pascolini, Donatella, and Silvio Paolo Mariotti. 2012. “Global Estimates of Visual Impairment: 2010.” British Journal of Ophthalmology 96 (5): 614–18.
Planning Commission. 2002. “Annual Plan 2003–04: Chapter 4 Human and Social Development.” Annual Five Year Plans. New Delhi, India: Government of India. http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/annualplan/ap0304pdf/ap0304_ch4.pdf.
Pokharel, Bhojraj. 2001. “Decentralization of Health Services.” SEA-HSD-245 2000. New Delhi, India: World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia.
Pokhrel, Ram Prasad. 2003. Reaching the Unreached: Three Decades of Struggle in Nepal. Kathmandu: International Forum. Retrieved April 30, 2009 (http://www.rppokhrel.com/index.php?pageid=pub).
Preobragenski, V. V., and U. C. Gupta. 1964. “The National Trachoma Control Programme in India.” Journal of the All-India Ophthalmological Society 12 (July): 68–73.
Raj, Kapil. 2006. Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and the Construction of Knowledge in South Asia and Europe, 1650–1900. New Delhi: Permanent Black.
Rankin, Katharine N. 2004. The Cultural Politics of Markets: Economic Liberalization And Social Change In Nepal. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Rathinam, S. R., and E. T. Cunningham. 2010. “Vitiligo Iridis in Patients with a History of Smallpox Infection.” Eye 24 (10): 1621–22.
Rogers, Leonard. 1944. “Smallpox and Vaccination in British India during the Last Seventy Years.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 38 (November): 135–39.
Rubin, Harriet. 2000. “Dr. Brilliant vs. the Devil of Ambition.” Fast Company, September 30. Retrieved February 1, 2012. http://www.fastcompany.com/41704/dr-brilliant-vs-devil-ambition.
SEVA. 1987. Progress Report 1987. Chelsea, MI: SEVA Foundation. GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-14. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai.
———. 1998. “An Evolving Vision of Service, 1978–1998.” GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-14. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai.
———. 2003. “SEVA’s Silver Anniversary Concert.” GVERI Resources Collection Box No. ORG-14. Govindappa Venkataswamy Eye Research Institute, Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai.
Siddiqi, Javed. 1995. “Part II Attempts to Build a Decentralized Universal Health Organization.” In World Health and World Politics: The World Health Organization and the UN System, 53–122. University of South Carolina Press.
Smith, Henry. 1910. The Treatment of Cataract. Calcutta, India: Thacker, Spink & Co. The Foundation of the American Academy of Ophthalmology Museum of Vision & Ophthalmic Heritage, San Francisco, CA.
The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness, and John Wilson, eds. 1980. World Blindness and Its Prevention: Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness, and Carl Kupfer, eds. 1988. World Blindness And Its Prevention: Volume 3. New York: Oxford University Press.
United Kingdom, and Nepal. 1923. “Treaty between the United Kingdom and Nepal Together with Note Respecting the Importation of Arms and Ammunition into Nepal.” 31. Treaty Series. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office. http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/treaties/treatyrecord.htm?tid=11170&pg=2.
UNO Stamps. 2008. “World Health Day 1976–Foresight Prevents Blindness.” UNO Stamps, February 6. Retrieved March 17, 2012. http://www.unostamps.nl/subject_world_health_day_1976.htm.
Venkataswamy, Govindappa. 1972. “Public Health Ophthalmology within the Nations. India.” Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 8 (8): 1066–68.
———. 1992. “Spiritual Consciousness and Healing: An Interview with Govindappa Venkataswamy.” By Missy Daniel. Second Opinion 18 (1): 68–81.
von der Heide, Susanne. 2012. “Linking Routes from the Silk Road through Nepal–The Ancient Passage through Mustang and Its Importance as a Buddhist Cultural Landscape.” In International Association of Silk Road Universities 2nd International Conference Archi-Cultural Translations through the Silk Road, 613: 353–359. Nishinomiya, Japan: Mukogawa Women’s University. http://www.mukogawa-u.ac.jp/~iasu2012/proceedings.html.
WHA, 1. 1948. First World Health Assembly, Geneva 24 June–24 July 1948: Plenary Meetings: Verbatim Records: Main Committees: Summary of Resolutions and Decisions. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85592.
WHA, 22. 1969. “Draft Second Report of the Committee on Programme and Budget.” A22/P&B/21. WHA22. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/144305.
WHA, 25. 1972. Twenty-Fifth World Health Assembly, Geneva, 9–26 May 1972: Part I: Resolutions and Decisions: Annexes. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85850.
WHA, 25 and M. G. Candau. 1972. “Provisional agenda item 2.6 Prevention of Blindness: Report by the Director-General.” A25/10. WHA25. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/145459.
WHA, 26. 1973. “Dr. M. G. Candau, Director-General Emeritus.” WHA26. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/92035.
WHA, 28. 1975. Twenty-Eighth World Health Assembly, Geneva, 13–30 May 1975: Part I: Resolutions and Decisions: Annexes. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/86022.
WHA, 31. 1978. Thirty-First World Health Assembly, Geneva, 8–24 May 1978: Part I: Resolutions and Decisions: Annexes. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/86043.
WHO. 1973. “The Prevention of Blindness: Report of a WHO Study Group.” 518. World Health Organization Technical Report Series. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/38222/1/WHO_TRS_518_eng.pdf.
———. 2009. “WHO Prevention of Avoidable Blindness and Visual Impairment.” Retrieved April 30, 2009. http://www.who.int/blindness/en/.
———. 2013. Universal Eye Health: A Global Action Plan 2014–2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/105937.
———. 2016. “Prevention of Blindness and Visual Impairment Historical Perspective.” WHO | Historical Perspective. http://www.who.int/blindness/history/en/.
WHO and Halfdan Mahler. 1974. The Work of WHO, 1973: Annual Report of the Director-General to the World Health Assembly and to the United Nations. OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 213. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85868.
———. 1975. The Work of WHO, 1974: Annual Report of the Director-General to the World Health Assembly and to the United Nations. OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 221. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85882.
———. 1976. The Work of WHO, 1975: Annual Report of the Director-General to the World Health Assembly and to the United Nations. OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 229. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/86025.
———. 1978. The Work of WHO, 1976–1977: Annual Report of the Director-General to the World Health Assembly and to the United Nations. OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 243. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/86039.
World Health Organization Office of External Coordination. 1990. “Directory of Nongovernmental Organizations in Official Relations with the World Health Organization.” Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/59634.
WHO and Socrates Litsios. 2008. THE THIRD TEN YEARS OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION: 1968–1977. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/global_health_histories/who-3rd10years.pdf.
WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia. 1975. “25th Anniversary of the WHO Regional Organization for South-East Asia, 1948–1973.” New Delhi, India: World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia. http://apps.searo.who.int/pds/ShowDetails.asp?Code=B3768.
———. 1978. “WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia Proposed Programme Budget for 1980–1981.” SEA/RC31/3. Regional Committee Meeting 31 Ulan Bator, 22–28 August 1978. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/129873.
WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Twenty-Sixth Session. 1973. “Report and Minutes of the Twenty-Sixth Session of the WHO Regional Committee for South-East Asia, New Delhi, 18–24 September, 1973.” New Delhi, India: World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia.
WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Twenty-Eighth Session. 1975. “Report and Minutes of the Twenty-Eighth Session of the WHO Regional Committee for South-East Asia, New Delhi, 25–30 August, 1975.” New Delhi, India: World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia.
Willard, Nedd, Poppy Willard, and R. Pararajasegaram. 2010. “Dr. Nicole Grasset A Retrospective.” SEVA Foundation. Retrieved February 1, 2013. http://www.seva.org/site/DocServer/Dr_Nicole_Grasset_Retrospective.pdf?docID=1141.
Wilson, John. 1987. “Clearing the Cataract Backlog.” The British Journal of Ophthalmology 71 (2): 158–160.
———. 1988. “Preventing Blindness, A Retrospective.” In World Blindness and Its Prevention: Volume 3, edited By the International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness and Carl Kupfer. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wingfield, Nick. 2013. “A Gift From Steve Jobs Returns Home.” New York Times. Bits Blog. November 20. http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/11/20/a-gift-from-steve-jobs-returns-home/.
World Bank. 2002. “India—Cataract Blindness Control Project.” 25232. Washington, DC: The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/238341468752788935/India-Cataract-Blindness-Control-Project.
Worthington, Richard. 1993. “Introduction: Science and Technology as a Global System.” Science, Technology, & Human Values 18 (2): 176–85.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Williams, L.D.A. (2019). Origins of an Autonomous Global Network to Eradicate Blindness. In: Eradicating Blindness. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1625-8_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1625-8_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-1624-1
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-1625-8
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)