Abstract
This chapter provides insights into the opportunities and challenges presented by customary protection of World Heritage sites. It explains that some of the key threats to East Rennell’s outstanding universal value cannot be addressed through the customary system alone; thus, additional management measures are required. Furthermore, there is a need to strengthen local governance at the site. The chapter then considers why the site’s management plan has barely been implemented. It suggests that future management plans may be more effective if they better reflect the customs, cultural values, and development aspirations of the East Rennellese people, and if they have status under State law.
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Notes
- 1.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 17 December 1975) (‘World Heritage Convention’).
- 2.
See, for example, Chris Ballard and Meredith Wilson, ‘Unseen Monuments: Managing Melanesian Cultural Landscapes’ in Ken Taylor and Jane L Lennon (eds), Managing Cultural Landscapes (Routledge, Oxon 2012) 130, 132; Anita Smith, ‘The World Heritage Pacific 2009 Programme’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, Paris 2012) 2, 5; Pepe Clarke and Charles Taylor Gillespie, Legal Mechanisms for the Establishment and Management of Terrestrial Protected Areas in Fiji (IUCN, Suva 2009) 2; Jonathan M Lindsay, Creating Legal Space for Community-Based Management: Principles and Dilemmas (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1998) 3.
- 3.
For example, in 2004, the World Heritage Committee requested that IUCN document and assess the effectiveness of the site’s customary protection: WHC Res 28 COM 15B.12, WHC 28th sess, UN Doc WHC-04.28.COM/26 (29 October 2004) 84. The 2007 East Rennell management plan identifies documenting the traditional knowledge and customary practices of the East Rennellese communities as a future management action: Laurie Wein, East Rennell World Heritage Site Management Plan (Solomon Islands National Commission for UNESCO, 2007) 20; Dingwall refers to the need for the ‘systematic cataloguing and documentation of cultural values and traditional resource use and conservation practices’: Paul Dingwall, Report on the Reactive Monitoring Mission to East Rennell, Solomon Islands, 21–29 October 2012 (IUCN, 2013) 28.
- 4.
K Ruddle, E Hviding and R E Johannes, ‘Marine Resources Management in the Context of Customary Tenure’ (1992) 7 Marine Resource Economics 249, 267.
- 5.
Wein, above n 3.
- 6.
See, for example, K A J Birket-Smith, An Ethnological Sketch of Rennell Island: A Polynesian Outlier in Melanesia (Munksgaard, 2nd ed, 1969).
- 7.
Jennifer Corrin and Don Paterson, Introduction to South Pacific Law (Palgrave Macmillan, 3rd ed, 2011) 274–275.
- 8.
Samuel H Elbert and Torben Monberg, From the Two Canoes: Oral Traditions of Rennell and Bellona Islands (Danish National Museum and University of Hawaii Press, 1965) 10.
- 9.
Ibid., 11.
- 10.
Ibid., 16.
- 11.
Birket-Smith, above n 6, 75.
- 12.
Elbert and Monberg, above n 8, 19.
- 13.
For discussion of the discovery of Rennell by Europeans, see Rolf Kuschel, ‘Early Contacts Between Bellona and Rennell Islands and the Outside World’ (1988) 23(2) Journal of Pacific History 191.
- 14.
T Wolff, ‘The Fauna of Rennell and Bellona, Solomon Islands’ (1969) 255(800) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 321, 321.
- 15.
Kuschel, above n 13, 196; Judith Bennett, Wealth of the Solomons: A History of a Pacific Archipelago, 1800–1978 (University of Hawaii Press, 1988) 272.
- 16.
Wolff, above n 14, 321.
- 17.
Kuschel, above n 13, 199.
- 18.
Elspeth J Wingham, Nomination of East Rennell, Solomon Islands by the Government of Solomon Islands for Inclusion in the World Heritage List Natural Sites (1997) 24.
- 19.
This period is described in detail in Torben Monberg, ‘Crisis and Mass Conversion on Rennell Island in 1938’ (1962) 71(2) Journal of Polynesian Society 145.
- 20.
Wingham, above n 18, 26.
- 21.
Monberg, above n 19, 149.
- 22.
Torben Monberg, ‘Research on Rennell and Bellona: A Preliminary Report’ (1960) 2 Folk 71, 71.
- 23.
Kuschel, above n 13, 199.
- 24.
Torben Monberg, ‘Bellona and Rennell Islanders’ in Melvin Ember, Carol R Ember and Jan Skoggard (eds), Encyclopedia of World Cultures Supplement (Macmillan, 2002) 46, 48.
- 25.
Wingham, above n 18, 45.
- 26.
Wein, above n 3, 16.
- 27.
Ibid.
- 28.
Anna Price, (Draft) Management Plan – East Rennell, Solomon Islands (2014).
- 29.
The advisors were volunteers through the Australian Volunteers International programme: see International Heritage Section, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, Australian Government, ‘Australian Capacity Building Support for East Rennell World Heritage Area 2007–2013’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 66.
- 30.
Kasia Gabrys and Mike Heywood, ‘Community and Governance in the World Heritage Property of East Rennell’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 60, 62.
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
Dingwall, above n 3, 5.
- 33.
Gabrys and Heywood, above n 30, 62.
- 34.
State of Conservation of Properties Inscribed on the World Heritage List, WHC 41st sess, UN Doc WHC/17/41.COM/7A.Add (2 June 2017) 26 (East Rennell, Solomon Islands) 31.
- 35.
See, for example, Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, Ashish Kothari and Gonzalo Oviedo, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas: Towards Equity and Enhanced Conservation (IUCN, Gland, 2004) 46.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
See, for example, WHC Res 41 COM 7A.19, 41st sess, UN Doc WHC/17/41.COM/18 (12 July 2017) 35.
- 38.
Forest Resources and Timber Utilisation Act (Cap. 40) s 5; Mines and Minerals Act (Cap. 42) ss 21, 36(a). These provisions are analysed in Sect. 7.3.1.
- 39.
Dingwall, above n 3, 33; Steve Turton, East Rennell World Heritage Area: Assessment of the State of Conservation of World Heritage Values. Final Field Report (James Cook University, 2014) 19.
- 40.
Dingwall above n 3, 34; Turton, above n 39, 15, 20.
- 41.
Turton, above n 39, 8.
- 42.
Michael A Ntumy, ‘The Dream of a Melanesian Jurisprudence: The Purpose and Limits of Law Reform’ in Jonathan Aleck and Jackson Rannells (eds), Custom at the Crossroads (University of Papua New Guinea, 1995) cited in Jennifer Corrin Care and Jean G Zorn, ‘Legislating for the Application of Customary Law in Solomon Islands’ (2005) 34 Common Law World Review 144, 149.
- 43.
See, for example, Matthew Allen et al, Justice Delivered Locally: Systems, Challenges and Innovations in Solomon Islands (World Bank, 2013) 69.
- 44.
See, for example, Joeli Veitayaki et al, ‘On Cultural Factors and Marine Managed Areas in Fiji’ in Jolie Liston, Geoffrey Clark and Dwight Alexander (eds), Pacific Island Heritage: Archaeology, Identity and Community (ANU E Press, 2011) 37, 38; Shankar Aswani, ‘Customary Sea Tenure in Oceania as a Case of Rights-Based Fishery Management: Does it Work?’ (2005) 15 Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 285, 289; Pepe Clarke and Stacy D Jupiter, ‘Law, Custom and Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Kubulau District (Fiji)’ (2010) 37(1) Environmental Conservation 98, 104.
- 45.
The only role for chiefs recognised under State legislation is in the resolution of disputes over rights to customary land: Local Courts Act (Cap. 19) s 12(1). This situation can be contrasted with Samoa, for example, where Indigenous governance structures are recognised and empowered under the Village Fono Act 1990. For discussion, see, for example, Erika J Techera, ‘Samoa: Law, Custom and Conservation’ (2006) 10 New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law 361.
- 46.
Elbert and Monberg, above n 8, 11.
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
Ibid.; Monberg, above n 22, 77.
- 49.
Elbert and Monberg, above n 8, 12.
- 50.
Ibid.
- 51.
Monberg, above n 22, 77; Allen et al, above n 43, 38; Elbert and Monberg, above n 8, 14.
- 52.
Wingham, above n 18, 5.
- 53.
Gabrys and Heywood, above n 30, 61.
- 54.
Ibid.
- 55.
Allen et al, above n 43, 24.
- 56.
Ibid., 38.
- 57.
The Tegano Management and Conservation Committee was established with the assistance of the New Zealand government: Elspeth J Wingham and Ben Devi, ‘The Involvement of Local People in the Management of a Proposed World Heritage Site at East Rennell, Solomon Islands’ in Hans D Thulstrup (ed), World Natural Heritage and the Local Community: Case Studies from Asia Pacific, Australia and New Zealand (UNESCO, 1999) 79, 80. In 2001, the East Rennell Environment and Conservation Trust Board was established: Salamat Ali Tabbasum and Paul Dingwall, Report on the Mission to East Rennell World Heritage Property and Marovo Lagoon, Solomon Islands, 30 March–10 April 2005 (IUCN and World Heritage Centre, 2005) 9. It was renamed to the East Rennell World Heritage Trust Board; Wein, above n 3, 10. The Board is no longer functional.
- 58.
Lake Tegano World Heritage Site Association Constitution and Rules (2009) cl 2.1.
- 59.
Ibid., cl 5.1(a).
- 60.
Ibid., cl 5.1(g).
- 61.
For example, the LTWHSA’s Constitution tries to ensure equality between the four East Rennell villages by guaranteeing equal representation on the committee for each village: Lake Tegano World Heritage Site Association Constitution and Rules cl 5.1(a). The chairperson of the committee is elected by the (eight) committee members: cl 5.1(d). The Constitution does not prescribe how the chairperson is to be elected if the vote of committee members results in a stalemate, which has led to problems with decision-making.
- 62.
The committee is dependent on receiving funds from the SIG or donors to convene meetings. The government has now allocated a fixed annual amount for the LTWHSA (Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016) 16), which may improve the situation.
- 63.
At meetings of the members and committee of the LTWHSA in 2013, the author observed several accusations of mismanagement regarding funds provided to the committee by the SIG.
- 64.
Anita Smith, ‘East Rennell World Heritage Site: Misunderstandings, Inconsistencies and Opportunities in the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention in the Pacific Islands’ (2011) 17(6) International Journal of Heritage Studies 592, 601.
- 65.
Jacob Zikuli and Hazel Clothier, Community Attitudes and Perceptions Towards the East Rennell World Heritage Programme (Live and Learn Environmental Education, 2008) 13.
- 66.
John Naitoro, ‘Mineral Resource Policy in Solomon Islands: The “Six Feet” Problem’ (2000) 15(1) Pacific Economic Bulletin 132.
- 67.
Ibid., 136.
- 68.
Anita Smith and Cate Turk, ‘Customary Systems of Management and World Heritage in the Pacific Islands’ in Sue O’Connor, Denis Byrne and Sally Brockwell (eds), Transcending the Culture-Nature Divide in Cultural Heritage: Views from the Asia-Pacific Region (ANU E Press, 2012) 22, 29.
- 69.
Albert Mumma, ‘Legal Aspects of Cultural Landscape Protection in Africa’ in Cultural Landscapes: The Challenges of Conservation, World Heritage Papers 7 (UNESCO, 2003) 156, 156.
- 70.
UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC.16/01 (26 October 2016) para 99. See also paras 100–102.
- 71.
Ibid., para 103. See also paras 104–107. For a discussion of the history of the buffer zone requirement in the Operational Guidelines, see Josephine Gillespie, ‘Buffering for Conservation at Angkor: Questioning the Spatial Regulation of a World Heritage Property’ (2012) 18(2) International Journal of Heritage Studies 194. For discussion of buffer zones in the Pacific World Heritage context, see Adam M Trau, Chris Ballard, Meredith Wilson, ‘Bafa Zon: Localising World Heritage at Chief Roi Mata’s Domain, Vanuatu’ (2014) 20(1) International Journal of Heritage Studies 86.
- 72.
Ruddle, Hviding and Johannes, above n 4, 268.
- 73.
Natasha Affolder, ‘Democratising or Demonising the World Heritage Convention?’ (2007) 39 University of Wellington Law Review (2007) 341, 356.
- 74.
Ibid.
- 75.
Trau, Ballard and Wilson, above n 71, 91.
- 76.
Wingham, above n 18, 38.
- 77.
Wein, above n 3, 6.
- 78.
Ibid., 3.
- 79.
Price, above n 28.
- 80.
Tabbasum and Dingwall, above n 57, 9, 19. This finding is consistent with the author’s observations from working in East Rennell.
- 81.
WHC Res 38 COM 7A.29, WHC 38th sess, UN Doc WHC-14/38.COM/16 (7 July 2014) 39, 40; WHC Res 39 COM 7A.16, WHC 39th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/39.COM/19 (8 July 2015) 30, 31; WHC Res 40 COM 7A.49, WHC 40th sess, UN Doc WHC-16/40.COM/19 (15 November 2016) 68, 69.
- 82.
State of Conservation of Properties Inscribed on the World Heritage List, WHC 41st sess, UN Doc WHC/17/41.COM/7A.Add (2 June 2017) 26 (East Rennell, Solomon Islands) 31–32.
- 83.
Wein, above n 3, 19–20.
- 84.
WHC Res 31 COM 7B.21, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/24 (31 July 2007) 58, 58.
- 85.
Smith and Turk, above n 68, 28.
- 86.
Wein, above n 3, 8.
- 87.
Ibid., 8–10.
- 88.
Ibid., 19–20.
- 89.
Smith, above n 64, 605.
- 90.
Gabrys and Heywood, above n 30, 62; Zikuli and Clothier, above n 65, 13. See also Smith, above n 64, who notes that livelihood issues dominated the meetings with community members that she was involved with to discuss the World Heritage programme: at 598. Similarly, livelihood issues dominated many of the meetings the author attended in East Rennell (in her capacity as legal advisor for a non-government organisation) concerning the protection of the World Heritage site.
- 91.
Smith, above n 64, 605.
- 92.
Wein, above n 3, 20.
- 93.
WHC Res 36 COM 8B.12, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 165, 165 para 3.
- 94.
Republic of Palau, The Rock Islands Southern Lagoon Nomination for Inscription on the World Heritage List (2012) 109.
- 95.
WHC Res 32 COM 8B.27, 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/24Rev (31 March 2009) 170.
- 96.
Meredith Wilson, Plan of Management for Chief Roi Mata’s Domain (CRMD) (2006) 22.
- 97.
Ibid., 8.
- 98.
Meredith Wilson, Chris Ballard and Douglas Kalotiti, ‘Chief Roi Mata’s Domain: Challenges Facing a World Heritage-Nominated Property in Vanuatu’ (Paper presented at ICOMOS meeting, Cairns, 21 July 2007) 6.
- 99.
Wein, above n 3, 17.
- 100.
Wein, above n 3, 10, 21.
- 101.
Lake Tegano World Heritage Site Association Constitution and Rules cl 2.2(a).
- 102.
John Denham, Tim Muke and Vagi Genorupa, ‘Nominating and Managing a World Heritage Site in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea’ (2007) 39(3) World Archaeology 324, 331.
- 103.
Ibid., 333.
- 104.
UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC.16/01 (26 October 2016) para 110.
- 105.
Ibid., paras 108, 132(5).
- 106.
Ibid., para 111.
- 107.
Smith and Turk, above n 68, 30.
- 108.
Ibid., 26.
- 109.
F Berkes, P J George and R J Preston, ‘The Evolution of Theory and Practice of the Joint Administration of Living Resources’ (1991) 18(2) Alternatives 12, 12; Borrini-Feyerbend, Kothari and Oviedo, above n 35.
- 110.
Australian Government Department of Environment and Energy, Park Management http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/national-parks/uluru-kata-tjuta-national-park/management-and-conservation/park-management. For further discussion of co-management initiatives, see, for example, M Nursey-Bray and P Rist, ‘Co-Management and Protected Area Management: Achieving Effective Management of a Contested Site: Lessons from the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA)’ (2009) 33(1) Marine Policy 118; Tony Corbett, Marcus Lane and Chris Clifford, Achieving Indigenous Involvement in Management of Protected Areas: Lessons from Recent Australian Experience, Aboriginal Politics and Public Sector Management Research Paper 5 (Centre for Australian Public Sector Management, 1998); T Bauman, C Haynes and G Lauder, Pathways to the Co-Management of Protected Areas and Native Title in Australia, AIATSIS Research Discussion Paper 32 (2013); Melanie Zubra et al, ‘Building Co-Management as a Process: Problem Solving Through Partnerships in Aboriginal Country, Australia’ (2012) 49 Environmental Management 1130; Joseph J Spaeder and Harvey A Feit, ‘Co-Management and Indigenous Communities: Barriers and Bridges to Decentralised Resource Management: Introduction’ (2005) 47(2) Anthropologica 147.
- 111.
Bauman, Haynes and Lauder, above n 110, 9.
- 112.
Nursey-Bray and Rist, above n 110; Corbett, Lane and Clifford, above n 110, 1.
- 113.
Bauman, Haynes and Lauder, above n 110, 10.
- 114.
For example, the assistance provided by Gabrys and Heywood: see Gabrys and Heywood, above n 30.
- 115.
See, for example, Robert Wild and Christopher McLeod (eds), Sacred Natural Sites: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers, Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 16 (IUCN, 2008); Borrini-Feyerabend, Kothari and Oviedo, above n 35.
- 116.
Smith and Turk, above n 68, 30.
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Spaeder, Joseph J and Harvey A Feit, ‘Co-Management and Indigenous Communities: Barriers and Bridges to Decentralised Resource Management: Introduction’ (2005) 47(2) Anthropologica 147
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Techera, Erika J, ‘Samoa: Law, Custom and Conservation’ (2006) 10 New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law 361
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Legislation and Bills: Solomon Islands
Charitable Trusts Act (Cap. 55)
Forest Resources and Timber Utilisation Act (Cap. 40)
Local Courts Act (Cap. 19)
Mines and Minerals Act (Cap. 42)
Protected Areas Act (2010)
Legislation and Bills: Samoa
Village Fono Act 1990
Conventions
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 17 December 1975)
United Nations Documents
State of Conservation of Properties Inscribed on the World Heritage List, WHC 41st sess, UN Doc WHC/17/41.COM/7A.Add (2 June 2017) 26 (East Rennell, Solomon Islands)
UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC.16/01 (26 October 2016)
WHC Res 28 COM 15B.12, WHC 28th sess, UN Doc WHC-04/28.COM/26 (29 October 2004) 84
WHC Res 31 COM 7B.21, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/24 (31 July 2007) 58
WHC Res 32 COM 8B.27, 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/24Rev (31 March 2009) 170
WHC Res 36 COM 8B.12, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 165
WHC Res 38 COM 7A.29, WHC 38th sess, UN Doc WHC-14/38.COM/16 (7 July 2014) 39
WHC Res 39 COM 7A.16, WHC 39th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/39.COM/19 (8 July 2015) 30
WHC Res 40 COM 7A.49, WHC 40th sess, UN Doc WHC-16/40.COM/19 (15 November 2016) 68
WHC Res 41 COM 7A.19, 41st sess, UN Doc WHC-17/41.COM/18 (12 July 2017) 35
Internet Materials
Australian Government Department of Environment and Energy, Park Management http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/national-parks/uluru-kata-tjuta-national-park/management-and-conservation/park-management
Other
Lake Tegano World Heritage Site Association Constitution and Rules (2009)
Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016)
Price, Anna, (Draft) Management Plan – East Rennell, Solomon Islands (2014)
Wilson, Meredith, Plan of Management for Chief Roi Mata’s Domain (CRMD) (2006)
Wein, Laurie, East Rennell World Heritage Site Management Plan (Solomon Islands National Commission for UNESCO, 2007)
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Price, S.C. (2018). Protecting the East Rennell World Heritage Site: Customary Protection and Management Planning. In: World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific. Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0602-0_6
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Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-0601-3
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-0602-0
eBook Packages: Literature, Cultural and Media StudiesLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)