Abstract
This chapter explains the context for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention in the Pacific, laying a foundation for more detailed analysis in subsequent chapters. It examines the types of heritage sites prevalent in the Pacific, and the key threats to such places. It then explains how a legacy of colonialism in the region is the creation of legally plural States, in which both customary and State laws apply. The scope for World Heritage to be protected under customary and State legal systems is also assessed. This includes analysing the economic, social, and political context within which those systems operate. The chapter argues that greater understanding of how customary and State laws operate and interact is needed to strengthen the protection of Pacific heritage.
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Notes
- 1.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 17 December 1975) (‘World Heritage Convention’).
- 2.
Anita Smith and Kevin L Jones (eds), Cultural Landscapes of the Pacific Islands (ICOMOS, 2007).
- 3.
Ian Lilley (ed), Early Human Expansion and Innovation in the Pacific: Thematic Study (ICOMOS, 2010).
- 4.
Lilley and Sand, above n 3, 24.
- 5.
See, for example, Hugh Govan et al, Status and Potential of Locally-Managed Marine Areas in the South Pacific: Meeting Nature Conservation and Sustainable Livelihood Targets Through Wide-Spread Implementation of LMMAs (SPREP/WWF/WorldFish-Reefbase/CRISP, 2009), 16; Gunnar Keppel et al, ‘Isolated and Vulnerable: The History and Future of Pacific Island Terrestrial Biodiversity’ (2014) 20(2) Pacific Conservation Biology 136, 141; Matt McIntyre, Pacific Environment Outlook (United Nations Environment Programme and the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 2005) 1, ch 2.
- 6.
Intangible heritage is not covered here, despite its importance to Pacific Islanders, because purely intangible heritage does not fall within the scope of the World Heritage Convention. See Sect. 3.2.2 for discussion of the scope of the Convention.
- 7.
Ian Lilley and Christophe Sand, ‘Thematic Frameworks for the Cultural Values of the Pacific’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 22, 24, 26.
- 8.
See, for example, Richard Herr, ‘Environmental Protection in the South Pacific: The Effectiveness of SPREP and its Conventions’ in Olav Schram Stokke and Øystein B Thommessen (eds), Yearbook of International Co-operation on Environment and Development 2002/2003 (Earthscan Publications, 2002) 41, 43.
- 9.
See, for example, Govan et al, above n 7, 16.
- 10.
See, for example, Anita Smith, ‘The Cultural Landscapes of the Pacific Islands’ in Anita Smith and Kevin L Jones (eds), Cultural Landscapes of the Pacific Islands (ICOMOS, 2007) 17, 18.
- 11.
See, for example, Paul Dingwall, ‘Pacific Islands World Heritage Tentative Lists’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 28, 30; Stuart Chape, ‘Natural World Heritage in Oceania: Challenges and Opportunities’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 40, 40.
- 12.
See, for example, Barry Cox and Peter Moore, Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach (Oxford, 1980) 109–11.
- 13.
See, for example, Smith, above n 10, 18.
- 14.
See, for example, Patrick D Nunn, ‘Nature-society interactions in the Pacific Islands’ (2013) 85(4) Geografiska Annaler, Series B, Human Geography 219, 222; Frank R Thomas, ‘The Precontact Period’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 125, 133–134.
- 15.
See, for example, Nunn, above n 14, 219; Smith, above n 10, 28.
- 16.
John R McNeill, ‘Of Rats and Men: A Synoptic Environmental History of the Island Pacific’ (1994) 5(2) Journal of World History 299, 304.
- 17.
See, for example, Patrick V Kirch, ‘Late Holocene Human-Induced Modifications to a Central Polynesian Island Ecosystem’ (1996) 93 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5296, 5296.
- 18.
See, for example, Chape, above n 11, 40.
- 19.
See, for example, Smith, above n 10, 28.
- 20.
See, for example, Nunn, above n 14, 219.
- 21.
See, for example, McNeill, above n 16, 306–307; Keppel et al, above n 7, 138.
- 22.
See, for example, McNeill, above n 16, 302; Keppel et al, above n 7, 136.
- 23.
See, for example, David W Steadman, ‘Prehistoric Extinctions of Pacific Island Birds: Biodiversity Meets Zooarchaeology’ (1995) 267 Science 1123; Stacy Jupiter, Sangeeta Manguhai and Richard T Kingsford, ‘Conservation of Biodiversity in the Pacific Islands of Oceania: Challenges and Opportunities’ (2014) 20(2) Pacific Conservation Biology 206, 206; McNeill, above n 16, 305–307.
- 24.
See, for example, McNeill, above n 16, 305.
- 25.
Eric L Kwa, ‘Climate Change and Indigenous People in the South Pacific’ (Paper presented at IUCN Academy of Environmental Law Conference on ‘Climate Law in Developing Countries Post-2012: North and South Perspectives’, Ottawa, Canada, 26–28 September 2008) 3.
- 26.
Darrell Addison Posey, ‘Introduction: Culture and Nature – The Inextricable Link’ in Darrell Addison Posey (ed), Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity (UNEP, 1999) 1, 7.
- 27.
See, for example, Paige West and Dan Brockington, ‘An Anthropological Perspective on Some Unexpected Consequences of Protected Areas’ (2006) 20(3) Conservation Biology 609, 611; Giovanni Boccardi, ‘The World Heritage Pacific 2009 Programme: Addressing the Aims of the Global Strategy in the Pacific Regions’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 12, 12; Chris Ballard and Meredith Wilson, ‘Unseen Monuments: Managing Melanesian Cultural Landscapes’ in Ken Taylor and Jane L Lennon (eds), Managing Cultural Landscapes (Routledge, 2012) 130, 134; Anita Smith and Cate Turk, ‘Customary Systems of Management and World Heritage in the Pacific Islands’ in Sue O’Connor, Denis Byrne and Sally Brockwell (eds), Transcending the Culture-Nature Divide in Cultural Heritage: Views from the Asia-Pacific Region (ANU E Press, 2012) 22, 29; Identification of World Heritage Properties in the Pacific: Second World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands Region (Port Vila, Vanuatu, 24–27 August 1999) preamble para 6. For discussion of the link between cultural and natural heritage generally, see Ben Boer and Stefan Gruber, ‘Heritage Discourses’ in Brad Jessup and Kim Rubenstein (eds), Environmental Discourses in Public and International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 375, 376–377.
- 28.
Ballard and Wilson, above n 27, 130.
- 29.
Of the independent Pacific Island States, Fiji, Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu are within Melanesia; Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu are within Polynesia; and Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Palau are within Micronesia.
- 30.
For more comprehensive discussion of the settlement of the region, see Donald Denoon, ‘Human Settlement’ in Donald Denoon, Malama Meleisea, Stewart Firth, Jocelyn Linnekin and Karen Nero (eds), The Cambridge History of Pacific Islanders (Cambridge University Press, 2008) 37.
- 31.
See, for example, Geoffrey Irwin, ‘Navigation and Seafaring’ in Ian Lilley (ed), Early Human Expansion and Innovation in the Pacific: Thematic Study (ICOMOS, 2010) 47, 51; Smith, above n 10, 22.
- 32.
See, for example, Ron Crocombe, The South Pacific (University of the South Pacific, 2001) 44.
- 33.
See, for example, ibid., 45.
- 34.
See, for example, Irwin, above n 31, 51.
- 35.
See, for example, Steven Roger Fischer, A History of the Pacific Islands (Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd ed, 2013), 16.
- 36.
See, for example, Nunn, above n 14, 220.
- 37.
See, for example, Thomas, above n 14, 127.
- 38.
See, for example, Irwin, above n 31, 52.
- 39.
Smith, above n 10, 24.
- 40.
See, for example , Elspeth J Wingham, Nomination of East Rennell, Solomon Islands by the Government of Solomon Islands for Inclusion in the World Heritage List Natural Sites (1997) 23.
- 41.
See, for example, Smith, above n 10, 24.
- 42.
See, for example, Michiko Intoh, ‘Human Dispersal into Micronesia’ (1997) 105 Anthropological Science 15.
- 43.
See, for example, Smith, above n 10, 22.
- 44.
Lilley (ed), above n 5.
- 45.
Government of Papua New Guinea , Kuk Early Agricultural Site Cultural Landscape – A Nomination for Consideration as World Heritage Site (2007).
- 46.
Smith, above n 10, 32–45.
- 47.
Smith, above n 10, 58.
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
S. James Anaya, ‘International Human Rights and Indigenous Peoples: The Move Toward the Multicultural State’ (2004) 21(1) Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law 13, 49.
- 50.
ICOMOS, Evaluations of Nominations of Cultural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, WHC 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/INF/8B1 (2008) 92 (Chief Roi Mata’s Domain, Vanuatu, Advisory Body Evaluation 1280) 94.
- 51.
Tim Denham, ‘Traim Tasol… Cultural Heritage Management in Papua New Guinea’ in Sue O’Connor, Denis Byrne and Sally Brockwell (eds), Transcending the Culture-Nature Divide in Cultural Heritage: Views from the Asia-Pacific Region (ANU E Press, 2012) 117, 120.
- 52.
See, for example, David A Chappell, ‘The Postcontact Period’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 138, 138.
- 53.
Beche de mer is processed from holothurians, commonly known as sea cucumbers.
- 54.
Smith, above n 10, 25.
- 55.
Ibid., 26.
- 56.
See, for example, John Barker, ‘Religion’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 214.
- 57.
Smith and Jones (eds), above n 4, 56.
- 58.
Fischer, above n 35, 109.
- 59.
Tonga was a protectorate of the United Kingdom between 1900 and 1970, but even during this period, Tonga maintained its sovereignty.
- 60.
See generally Fischer, above n 35, 125–174.
- 61.
Pacific Order in Council 1893 (UK).
- 62.
Smith, above n 10, 54–56.
- 63.
Ibid., 54.
- 64.
WHC Res 37 COM 8B.25, WHC 37th sess, UN Doc WHC-13/37.COM/20 (5 July 2013) 186.
- 65.
Smith, above n 10, 51–54.
- 66.
Ibid.
- 67.
Ibid.
- 68.
WHC Res 34 COM 8B.20, WHC 34th sess, UN Doc WHC-10/34.COM/20 (3 September 2010) 206.
- 69.
See, for example, Jupiter, Manguhai and Kingsford, above n 23, 206; Catherine Giraud-Kinley, ‘The Effectiveness of International Law: Sustainable Development in the South Pacific Region’ (1999–2000) 12 Georgetown Environmental Law Review 125, 133.
- 70.
See, for example, Jupiter, Manguhai and Kingsford, above n 23, 207, 210.
- 71.
See, for example, P Gerbeaux et al, Shaping a Sustainable Future in the Pacific: IUCN Regional Programme for Oceania 2007–2012 (IUCN, 2007) 3–5.
- 72.
See, for example, Michael King et al, Strategic Plan for Fisheries Management and Sustainable Coastal Fisheries in the Pacific Islands (Secretariat of the Pacific Community, 2003) 1.
- 73.
See, for example, Vina Ram-Bidesi, ‘Ocean Resources’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 364, 375.
- 74.
See, for example, Lai Murari, ‘Implications of Climate Change in Small Island Developing Countries of the South Pacific’ (2004) 2(1) Fijian Studies 15; United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS), Small Island Developing States: Small Islands Big(ger) Stakes (UN, 2011).
- 75.
See, for example, Anette Reenberg et al, ‘Adaption of Human Coping Strategies in a Small Island Society in the SW Pacific: 50 Years of Change in the Coupled Human-Environment system on Bellona, Solomon Islands’ (2008) 3(6) Human Ecology 807, 807.
- 76.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Pacific Islands Environment Outlook (UNEP, 1999) xi.
- 77.
See, for example, Reenberg et al, above n 75, 808; Donovan Storey and David Abbott, ‘Development Prospects’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 417, 420.
- 78.
See, for example, Storey and Abbott, above n 77, 421.
- 79.
Sally Engle Merry, ‘Legal Pluralism’ (1988) 22 Law and Society Review 869, 870; John Griffiths, ‘What is Legal Pluralism?’ (1986) 24 Journal of Legal Pluralism 1, 12.
- 80.
Griffiths, above n 79, 38.
- 81.
Simon Roberts, ‘Against Legal Pluralism: Some Reflections on the Contemporary Enlargement of the Legal Domain’ (1998) 42 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 95, 97. For a comprehensive analysis of the development of concept, see, for example, Miranda Forsyth, A Bird That Flies with Two Wings: Kastom and State Justice Systems in Vanuatu (ANU E Press, 2009), ch 2; Brian Z Tamanaha, ‘Understanding Legal Pluralism: Past to Present, Local to Global’ (2008) 30 Sydney Law Review 375, 377–390.
- 82.
Tamanaha, above n 81, 390.
- 83.
Merry, above n 79, 872.
- 84.
Ibid., 873.
- 85.
See, for example, Tamanaha, above n 81, 397–399.
- 86.
Merry, above n 79, 873, 879; Tamanaha, above n 81, 375.
- 87.
Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock, ‘Introduction’ in Brian Z Tamanaha, Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock (eds), Legal Pluralism and Development: Scholars and Practitioners in Dialogue (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 1, 9.
- 88.
See, for example, Stephan Klingelhofer and David Robinson, The Rule of Law, Custom and Civil Society in the South Pacific: An Overview (International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, 2001) 10.
- 89.
See, for example, Jennifer Corrin, ‘Customary Land and the Language of the Common Law’ (2008) 37 Common Law World Review 305, 309.
- 90.
Griffiths, above n 79, 3.
- 91.
See, for example, John Griffiths, ‘Legal Pluralism and the Theory of Legislation – With Special Reference to the Regulation of Euthanasia’ in Hanne Petersen and Henrik Zahle (eds), Legal Polycentricity: Consequences of Pluralism in Law (Hanne Peterson, 1995) 210, cited in Gordon Woodman, ‘Why There Can be No Map of Law’, Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law in Social, Economic and Political Development: Papers of the XIIIth International Congress of the Commission on Folk Law and Legal Pluralism (Chiangmai, Thailand, 7–10 April, 2002) 383; cf Alan Watson, ‘An Approach to Customary Law’ (1984) 3 University of Illinois Law Review 561. Watson argues that custom only becomes law through recognition by the State: at 576.
- 92.
Forsyth , above n 81, 38.
- 93.
Ibid.
- 94.
Gordon R Woodman, ‘Ideological Combat and Social Observation: Recent Debate About Legal Pluralism’ (1998) 42 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 21, 44.
- 95.
Merry, above n 79, 878.
- 96.
Matthew Allen et al, Justice Delivered Locally: Systems, Challenges and Innovations in Solomon Islands (World Bank, 2013) 34.
- 97.
Ton Otto, ‘Transformations of Cultural Heritage in Melanesia: From Kastam to Kalsa’ (2015) 21(2) International Journal of Heritage Studies 117, 122.
- 98.
Miranda Forsyth, ‘Beyond Case Law: Kastom and Courts in Vanuatu’ (2004) 35 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 427, 429.
- 99.
T W Bennett and T Vermeulen, ‘Codification of Customary Law’ (1980) 24(2) Journal of African Law 206, 215; Francesco Parisi, ‘The Formation of Customary Law’ (Paper presented at the 96th Annual Conference of the American Political Science Association, Washington DC, August 31–September 3, 2000) 4.
- 100.
Sue Farran, ‘Is Legal Pluralism an Obstacle to Human Rights? Considerations from the South Pacific’ (2006) 52 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 77, 93; Jennifer Corrin Care, ‘Wisdom and Worthy Customs: Customary Law in the South Pacific’ (2002) 80 Reform 31, 32.
- 101.
Corrin Care, above n 100, 32.
- 102.
Parisi, above n 99, 5.
- 103.
Tamanaha, above n 81, 392.
- 104.
Woodman, above n 94, 45; Merry, above n 79, 889; William Twining, ‘Legal Pluralism 101’ in Brian Z Tamanaha, Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock (eds), Legal Pluralism and Development: Scholars and Practitioners in Dialogue (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 112, 114.
- 105.
Twining, above n 104, 114.
- 106.
Fischer, above n 35, 25–27. See generally Ann Gibbons, ‘Genes Point to a New Identity for Pacific Pioneers’ (1994) 263(5143) Science 32.
- 107.
Jennifer Corrin Care and Jean G Zorn, ‘Legislating pluralism: Statutory “Developments” in Melanesian Customary Law’ (2001) 46 Journal of Legal Pluralism 49, 53, 71; Jennifer Corrin Care and Jean G Zorn, ‘Legislating for the Application of Customary Law in Solomon Islands’ (2005) 34 Common Law World Review 144, 145; Jennifer Corrin, ‘A Question of Identity: Complexities of State Law Pluralism in the South Pacific’ (2010) 61 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 145, 147; Edvard Hviding, ‘Contextual Flexibility: Present Status and Future of Customary Marine Tenure in Solomon Islands’ (1998) 40 Ocean and Coastal Management 253, 256.
- 108.
Nicholas Menzies, Legal Pluralism and the Post-Conflict Transition in the Solomon Islands (Hertie School of Governance, Berlin, 2007) 4.
- 109.
Fischer, above n 35, 28–42.
- 110.
Benjamin Reilly, ‘State Functioning and State Failure in the South Pacific’ (2004) 58(4) Australian Journal of International Affairs 479, 480.
- 111.
Andrew Pawley, ‘Language’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 159, 160.
- 112.
Jennifer Corrin and Don Paterson, Introduction to South Pacific Law (Palgrave Macmillan, 3rd ed, 2011) 40.
- 113.
See, for example, Corrin, above n 89, 309.
- 114.
Allen et al, above n 96, 72; Miranda Forsyth, The Writing of Community By-Laws and Constitutions in Melanesia: Who? Why? Where? How? State, Society and Governance in Melanesia in Brief (The Australian National University, 2014).
- 115.
See, for example, Hviding, above n 107, 255.
- 116.
Allen et al, above n 96, 34.
- 117.
Corrin and Paterson, above n 112, 1.
- 118.
Marshall D Sahlins, ‘Poor Man, Rich Man, Big-Man , Chief: Political Types in Melanesia and Polynesia’ (1963) 5(3) Comparative Studies in Society and History 285.
- 119.
Abby McLeod, Leadership Models in the Pacific, State, Society and Governance Discussion Paper (The Australian National University, 2008) 10–11.
- 120.
Sahlins, above n 118.
- 121.
Ibid.
- 122.
McLeod, above n 119, 7.
- 123.
See, for example, McLeod, above n 119, 4; B Douglas, ‘Rank, Power, Authority; A Reassessment of Traditional Leadership in South Pacific Societies’ (1979) 14 Journal of Pacific History 2; Christophe Sand, ‘Melanesian Tribes vs Polynesian Chiefdoms: Recent Archaeological Assessment of a Classic Model of Socio-Political Types in Oceania’ (2002) 41(2) Asian Perspectives 284.
- 124.
Roger M Keesing, ‘Killers, Big Men, and Priests on Malaita: Reflections on a Melanesian Troika System’ (1985) 24(4) Ethnology 237.
- 125.
Geoffrey White, Indigenous Governance in Melanesia, State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Discussion Paper (The Australian National University, 2007).
- 126.
Corrin and Paterson, above n 112, 2.
- 127.
Ibid., 2–3.
- 128.
Terence Wesley-Smith, ‘Changing Patterns of Power’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 147; Corrin, above n 89, 309–310.
- 129.
Corrin Care and Zorn, ‘Legislating for the Application of Customary Law’, above n 107, 145.
- 130.
Ibid. For example, in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, native courts were established and authorised to apply native customs: Native Courts Ordinance 1942 s 10.
- 131.
Solomon Islands Independence Order 1978, sch (Constitution of Solomon Islands) s 1(2), 46.
- 132.
McLeod, above n 119, 8–11; Richard Scaglion, ‘Law’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 202, 205–207. For example, Vanuatu has a National Council of Chiefs known as Malfatu Mauri (Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu ch 5).
- 133.
In the lead up to Solomon Islands’ independence, the idea that a Council of Elders (comprising an elected group of chiefs) would constitute an upper house was discussed. However, the idea was ultimately not accepted. See Clive Moore, Decolonising the Solomon Islands: British Theory and Melanesian Practice, Working Paper 8 (Alfred Deakin Research Institute, Deakin University, 2010) 17–18. The only role of chiefs recognised under Solomon Islands’ legislation is in the resolution of disputes over rights to customary land (Local Courts Act (Cap. 19) s 12(1)).
- 134.
See generally, Corrin and Paterson, above n 112, 16–19.
- 135.
Constitution of Solomon Islands s 3.
- 136.
For detailed explanation of the extent to which State laws provide for the recognition of customary law in the Pacific Island countries, see Corrin and Paterson, above n 112, 41–51.
- 137.
Constitution of Solomon Islands sch 3, para 3.
- 138.
Corrin Care and Zorn, ‘Legislating for the Application of Customary Law’, above n 107, 147.
- 139.
Klingelhofer and Robinson above n, 88, 10; Corrin Care and Zorn, ‘Legislating for the Application of Customary Law’, above n 107, 148; Forsyth, above n 81, 251; Allen et al, above n 96, xi, 34; Hviding, above n 107, 266; Jennifer Corrin, ‘Moving Beyond the Hierarchical Approach to Legal Pluralism in the South Pacific’ (2009) 59 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 29, 31; Matthew Zurstrassen, Customary Dispute Resolution Research Project: Final Report to the Regional PJDP Meetings in Samoa in March 2012, Pacific Judicial Development Programme (2012) 3.
- 140.
See, for example , Constitution of Solomon Islands sch 3, para 3. For analysis of the status of customary laws pursuant to the Constitutions of Pacific Island States, see Katrina Cuskelly, Customs and Constitutions: State Recognition of Customary Law Around the World (IUCN, 2011) 18–21.
- 141.
Allen et al, above n 96, 9.
- 142.
See, for example, Smith, above n 10, 25–27; Sand, above n 123, 291; Corrin Care and Zorn, ‘Legislating Pluralism’, above n 107, 51; Forsyth, above n 98, 429.
- 143.
See, for example, Smith, above n 10, 26; Sand, above n 123, 291.
- 144.
See, for example, Forsyth, above n 81, 61; Judith Bennett, Roots of Conflict in Solomon Islands – Though Much is Taken, Much Abides: Legacies of Tradition and Colonialism, State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Discussion Paper (The Australian National University, 2002) 3.
- 145.
See, for example, Michael Goddard, Justice Delivered Locally, Solomon Islands, Literature Review (World Bank, 2010) 8, 29; Erika J Techera, ‘Samoa: Law, Custom and Conservation’ (2006) 10 New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law 361, 363.
- 146.
See, for example, Corrin Care and Zorn, ‘Legislating Pluralism’, above n 107, 53–54.
- 147.
Goddard, above n 145, 27, 29.
- 148.
White, above n 125, 4; Allen et al, above n 96, 65; Anne M Brown, ‘Custom and Identity: Reflections on and Representations of Violence in Melanesia’ in Nikki Slocum-Bradley (ed), Promoting Conflict or Peace through Identity (Ashgate, 2008) 183, 190.
- 149.
Corrin Care and Zorn, ‘Legislating Pluralism’, above n 107, 51.
- 150.
Ibid.
- 151.
Ibid.
- 152.
Jean G Zorn, ‘Customary Law in the Papua New Guinea Village Courts’ (1990) 2(2) The Contemporary Pacific 279, 306.
- 153.
Lissant Bolton, ‘Chief Willie Bongmatur Maldo and the Role of Chiefs in Vanuatu’ (1998) 33 Journal of Pacific History 179, 180.
- 154.
Forsyth, above n 98, 430.
- 155.
Judith Bennett, Wealth of the Solomons: A History of a Pacific Archipelago, 1800–1978 (University of Hawaii Press, 1988) 112–114.
- 156.
Allen et al, above n 96, 8–9.
- 157.
Ibid., 7.
- 158.
White, above n 125, 2.
- 159.
Zurstrassen, above n 139, 3.
- 160.
See, for example, Brown, above n 148, 190; Corrin, above n 107, 147.
- 161.
See, for example, Joeli Veitayaki et al ‘On Cultural Factors and Marine Managed Areas in Fiji’ in Jolie Liston, Geoffrey Clark and Dwight Alexander (eds), Pacific Island Heritage: Archaeology, Identity and Community (ANU E Press, 2011) 37, 38; Shankar Aswani, ‘Customary Sea Tenure in Oceania as a Case of Rights-Based Fishery Management: Does it Work?’ (2005) 15 Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 285, 304; Pepe Clarke and Stacy D Jupiter, ‘Law, Custom and Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Kubulau District (Fiji)’ (2010) 37(1) Environmental Conservation 98, 104; Marjo Vierros et al, Traditional Marine Management Areas of the Pacific in the Context of National and International Law and Policy (United Nations University, 2010) 7; Simon Foale et al ‘Tenure and Taboos: Origins and Implications for Fisheries in the Pacific’ (2011) 12 Fish and Fisheries 357, 364; Jan McDonald, Marine Resource Management and Conservation in Solomon Islands: Roles, Responsibilities and Opportunities (Griffith Law School, 2010) 2.
- 162.
Jim Fingleton, Pacific 2020 Background Paper: Land (Commonwealth of Australia, 2005) 5.
- 163.
Brown, above n 148, 191.
- 164.
See, for example, Peter Larmour, ‘Sharing the Benefits: Customary Landowners and Natural Resource Projects in Melanesia’ (1989) 36 Pacific Viewpoint 56, 57.
- 165.
Sue Farran, ‘Navigating Between Traditional Land Tenure and Introduced Land Laws in Pacific Island States’ (2011) 64 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 65, 67.
- 166.
Corrin and Paterson, above n 112, 285. For example, in the British protectorate of Solomon Islands, the grant of perpetual estate to foreigners was initially permitted, but later prohibited under Land Regulation 1914 (King’s Regulation No. 3) (UK) s 3.
- 167.
For example, in Solomon Islands, only a Solomon Islander can hold an interest in customary land (Land and Titles Act (Cap. 133) s 241(1)).
- 168.
Ron Crocombe, ‘Tenure’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i Press, 2013) 192, 193. In Solomon Islands, there are conflicting High Court decisions concerning customary ownership of land below the high-water mark. In Allardyce Lumber Company Ltd v Laore [1990] SBHC 46, the Court ruled that the foreshore could be customary land but the seabed could not. In Combined Fera Group v Attorney General [1997] SBHC 55 the Court found that the seabed could also potentially be under customary tenure. For further discussion see Stephanie Price et al, Environmental Law in Solomon Islands (Public Solicitor’s Office, 2015) 31–32.
- 169.
Of the eight World Heritage Sites in the Pacific Island States, seven either partly or entirely comprise customary land (Nan Madol: Ceremonial Centre of Eastern Micronesia, Levuka Historical Port Town , Bikini Atoll Nuclear Site, Rock Islands Southern Lagoon, Kuk Early Agricultural Site , East Rennell and Chief Roi Mata’s Domain). See Table 1.2.
- 170.
Alienation was prohibited by Land Regulation 1914 (King’s Regulation No. 3) (UK).
- 171.
AusAid, Making Land Work: Reconciling Customary Land and Development in the Pacific (Australian Agency for International Development, vol 1, 2008) 4.
- 172.
Corrin and Paterson, above n 112. In Solomon Islands, for example, this is provided for in the Land and Titles Act (Cap. 133) s 239(1).
- 173.
White, above n 125, 10.
- 174.
John McKinnon, ‘Resource Management under Traditional Tenure: The Political Ecology of a Contemporary Problem, New Georgia Islands, Solomon Islands’ (1993) 14(1) South Pacific Study 95, 95.
- 175.
Allen et al, above n 96, 18.
- 176.
For example, in Solomon Islands, the Minister for Environment cannot declare an area to be a ‘protected area’ under the Protected Areas Act 2010 if there is a dispute over the ownership of the land (Protected Area Regulations 2012 reg 14(3)). See Sect. 7.2 for analysis of this legislation.
- 177.
Smith, above n 10, 24, 41.
- 178.
Jean Guiart, ‘Land Tenure and Hierarchies in Eastern Melanesia’ (1996) 19(1) Pacific Studies 1, 7; Crocombe, above n 168, 192.
- 179.
Crocombe, above n 168, 192.
- 180.
Jim Fingleton (ed), Privatising Land in the Pacific: A Defence of Customary Tenures, Discussion paper 80 (The Australia Institute, 2005) ix.
- 181.
Corrin and Paterson, above n 112, 269, 274–275.
- 182.
Samuel H Elbert and Torben Monberg, From the Two Canoes: Oral Traditions of Rennell and Bellona Islands (Danish National Museum and University of Hawaii Press, 1965) 10.
- 183.
Ron Crocombe, ‘Overview’ in Customary Land Tenure and Sustainable Development: Complementary or Conflict (South Pacific Commission, 1995) 5, 10–11; Crocombe, above n 168, 192.
- 184.
Fingleton, above n 162, 7.
- 185.
Crocombe, ‘Overview’, above n 183, 10.
- 186.
Fingleton, above n 162, 7.
- 187.
See, for example, Donald Denoon, ‘Pacific Edens? Myths and Realities of Primitive Affluence’ in Donald Denoon, Malama Meleisea, Stewart Firth, Jocelyn Linnekin and Karen Nero (eds), The Cambridge History of Pacific Islanders (Cambridge University Press, 2008) 80, 94.
- 188.
Corrin and Paterson, above n 112, 289.
- 189.
Ibid.
- 190.
Fingleton, above n 162, 8.
- 191.
See, for example, Denoon, above n 187, 90.
- 192.
For example, the Land and Titles Act (Cap. 133).
- 193.
For example, the Land and Titles Act (Cap. 133); Local Courts Act (Cap. 19).
- 194.
For example, the Forest Resources and Timber Utilisation Act (Cap. 40); Mines and Minerals Act (Cap. 42); Environment Act 1998.
- 195.
For example, the Protected Areas Act 2010.
- 196.
Constitution of Solomon Islands s 59(1).
- 197.
The nine provinces of Solomon Islands are Central, Choiseul, Guadalcanal, Isabel, Makira-Ulawa, Malaita, Rennell-Bellona, Temotu, and Western Province: see Fig. 1.3.
- 198.
Provincial Government Act 1997 ss 31, 33, sch 3.
- 199.
Constitution of Solomon Islands sch 3 para 3.
- 200.
See, for example, Smith and Turk, above n 27, 24; Chape, above n 11, 44; Anita Smith, ‘The World Heritage Pacific 2009 Programme’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 2, 9; Denham, above n 207, 101; Salamat Ali Tabbasum, ‘Developing the Solomon Islands Tentative List’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 34, 34.
- 201.
Interview by the author with a conservation officer in the Ministry of Environment (Honiara, 2 August 2013).
- 202.
See, for example, AusAid, Pacific 2020: Challenges and Opportunities for Growth (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006) 1, 19; Storey and Abbott, above n 77, 417; Geoff Bertram, ‘Pacific Island Economies’ in Moshe Rapaport (ed), The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (University of Hawai’i, 2013) 325. For example, Solomon Islands’ economy grew by 2.9% in 2015 (Central Bank of Solomon Islands, Annual Report 2015 (Solomon Islands Government, 2016) 1) and 3.5% in 2016 (Central Bank of Solomon Islands, Annual Report 2016 (Solomon Islands Government, 2017) 3).
- 203.
See, for example, Agenda 21, Report of the UNCED, I, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (1992) para 17.123.
- 204.
United Nations Committee for Development Policy, List of Least Developed Countries (as of March 2018) (2018) https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/ldc_list.pdf. ‘Least Developed Countries’ are those that meet certain low-income, human resource weakness and economic vulnerability criterion specified by the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.
- 205.
See, for example, Herr, above n 8, 43; Tabbasum, above n 200, 34; Peter Shelley, ‘Contracting for Conservation in the Central Pacific: An Overview of the Phoenix Islands Protected Area’ (2012) 106 Proceedings of the Annual Meeting (American Society of International Law 511, 514.
- 206.
Final Report on the Results of the Second Cycle of the Periodic Reporting Exercise for Asia and the Pacific, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/10A (1 June 2012) 22.
- 207.
See, for example, Tim Denham, ‘Building Institutional and Community Capacity for World Heritage in Papua New Guinea: The Kuk Early Agricultural Site and Beyond’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 98, 101.
- 208.
See, for example, Daniel Gay (ed), Solomon Islands Diagnostic Trade Integration Study 2009 Report (Solomon Islands Government, 2009) 48; Morgan Wairiu, ‘History of the Forestry Industry in Solomon Islands: The Case of Guadalcanal’ (2007) 42(2) Journal of Pacific History 233, 243. See Sect. 7.3.2 for further discussion.
- 209.
See, for example, Pacific Horizon Consultancy Group, Solomon Islands State of Environment Report (Solomon Islands Government, 2008) 81.
- 210.
Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016) 3.
- 211.
Clive Moore, ‘Indigenous Participation in Constitutional Development’ (2013) 48(2) The Journal of Pacific History 162, 163; Sinclair Dinnen, ‘State-Building in a Post-Colonial Society: The Case of Solomon Islands’ (2008) 9 Chicago Journal of International Law 51, 53.
- 212.
Stephen Levine, ‘The Experience of Sovereignty in the Pacific: Island States and Political Autonomy in the Twenty-First Century’ (2012) 50(4) Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 439, 444.
- 213.
Fischer, above n 35, 249; Sinclair Dinnen, ‘The Solomon Islands Intervention and the Instabilities of the Post-Colonial State’ (2008) 20(3) Global Change, Peace and Security (formerly Pacific Review: Peace, Security and Global Change) 338, 347. An exception to this is Samoa, where from the 1930s there was an indigenous independence movement: see, for example, Crocombe, above n 32, 438.
- 214.
Cedric Saldanha, Pacific 2020 Background Paper: Political Governance (Commonwealth of Australia, 2005) 4.
- 215.
Ibid.; Ron Duncan, ‘An Overview of Decentralisation and Local Governance Structures in the Pacific Region’ (Paper presented at the Pacific Regional Symposium ‘Making Local Governance Work’, Suva, Fiji, 4–8 December 2004) 10.
- 216.
Reilly, above n 110, 482–483; McLeod, above n 119, 8.
- 217.
Dinnen, above n 211, 57.
- 218.
Solomon Islands’ ethnic tensions are explained briefly in Sect. 5.3.3.1.
- 219.
Reilly, above n 110, 482; Bennett, above n 144, 14; Ian Frazer, ‘The Struggle for Control of Solomon Island Forests’ (1997) 9(1) Contemporary Pacific 39, 44.
- 220.
Bennett, above n 144, 14.
- 221.
Wesley-Smith, above n 128, 151.
- 222.
Jane Turnbull, ‘Solomon Islands: Blending Traditional Power and Modern Structures in the State’ (2002) 22 Public Administration and Development 191, 197.
- 223.
Dinnen, above n 211, 58.
- 224.
Klingelhofer and Robinson, above n 88, 9.
- 225.
Allen et al, above n 96, 45.
- 226.
Laurence Cordonnery, ‘Environmental Law Issues in the South Pacific and the Quest for Sustainable Development and Good Governance’ in Anita Jowitt and Tess Newton Cain (eds), Passage of Change: Law, Society and Governance in the Pacific (ANU Press, 2010) 233, 238; Final Report on the Results of the Second Cycle of the Periodic Reporting Exercise for Asia and the Pacific, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/10A (1 June 2012) 43; Ben Boer and Pepe Clarke, Legal Frameworks for Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Climate Change in the Pacific Islands (SPREP, 2012) 25. See generally, Price et al, above n 168.
- 227.
Govan, et al above n 7, 17.
- 228.
See above n 200.
- 229.
Allen et al, above n 96, 44–45.
- 230.
A promising development in this regard is the publication of the Solomon Islands Environmental Crime Manual, which is aimed to assist members of the Royal Solomon Islands Police Force to identify and enforce environmental crimes, including those committed under logging and mining laws, the Environment Act 1998 and the Protected Areas Act 2010: See Katrina Moore, Solomon Islands Environmental Crime Manual (Solomon Islands Government, 2015). In time, this may lead to some improvement in the enforcement of such legislation.
- 231.
Phillip Iro Tagini, The Search for King Solomon’s Gold: An Examination of the Policy and Regulatory Framework for Mining in Solomon Islands (PhD Thesis, The Australian National University, 2007) 391.
- 232.
Identification of World Heritage Properties in the Pacific: First World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands Region (Suva, Fiji, 15–18 July 1997) para 7. See also Presentation of the World Heritage Programme for the Pacific, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/11C (10 May 2007) annex I (Appeal to the World Heritage Committee from the Pacific Island State Parties).
- 233.
See, for example, Smith, above n 10, 60; Ballard and Wilson, above n 27, 130; Hugh Govan, ‘Achieving the Potential of Locally Managed Marine Areas in the South Pacific’ (2009) 25 SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin 16, 17; L M Scherl and A J O’Keefe, Capacity Development for Protected and Other Conserved Areas in the Pacific Islands Region: Strategy and Action Framework 2015–2020 (IUCN, 2016) 1.
- 234.
Reuben Sulu, ‘Traditional law and the Environment in the Solomon Islands’ (2004) 17 SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin 20, 20.
- 235.
Scherl and O’Keefe, above n 233, 1.
- 236.
R E Johannes, ‘Traditional Marine Conservation Methods in Oceania and their Demise’ 9 (1978) Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 349, 350.
- 237.
See, for example, Foale et al, above n 161, 365; Crocombe, above n 32, 25; Simon Foale, ‘The Intersection of Scientific and Indigenous Ecological Knowledge in Coastal Melanesia: Implications for Contemporary Marine Resource Management’ (2006) 58 (187) International Social Science Journal 129, 129; R E Johannes and F R Hickey, Evolution of Village-Based Marine Resource Management in Vanuatu Between 1993 and 2001, Coastal Region and Small Island Papers 15 (UNESCO, 2004) 29; K Ruddle, E Hviding and R E Johannes, ‘Marine Resources Management in the Context of Customary Tenure’ (1992) 7 Marine Resource Economics 249, 267; Marianne Pederson, Conservation Complexities: Conservationists’ and Local Landowners’ Different Perceptions of Development and Conservation in Dandaun Province, Papua New Guinea, State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Discussion Paper 7 (Australian National University, 2013) 3.
- 238.
Foale et al, above n 161, 357.
- 239.
McNeill, above n 16, 309.
- 240.
Ruddle, Hiving, Johannes, above n 237, 262.
- 241.
Giraud-Kinley, above n 69, 157; Foale et al, above n 161, 365; Crocombe, ‘Overview’, above n 183; Ruddle, Hviding and Johannes, above n 237, 267.
- 242.
S Aswani et al, ‘Customary Management as Precautionary and Adaptive Principles for Protecting Coral Reefs in Oceania’ (2007) 26 Coral Reefs 1009, 1010.
- 243.
See, for example, Aswani et al, above n 242; Clark and Jupiter, above n 161; Govan, above n 233; McDonald, above n 161; David Doulman, ‘Community-Based Fishery Management: Towards Restoration of Traditional Practices in the South Pacific’ (1993) Marine Policy 108; R E Johannes and F R Hickey, above n 237, 28; J E Cinner and T R McClanahan, ‘Socioeconomic Factors that Lead to Overfishing in Small-Scale Coral Reef Fisheries of Papua New Guinea’ (2006) 33 Environmental Conservation 73.
- 244.
Menzies, above n 108, 10; Corrin, above n 139, 30.
- 245.
Corrin Care and Zorn, ‘Legislating for the Application of Customary Law’, above n 107, 149.
- 246.
Forsyth, above n 81, 114–120; Veitayaki et al, above n 161, 40.
- 247.
See, for example, Foale et al, above n 161, 364; McDonald, above n 161, 2; Govan et al, above n 7, 25; Johannes, above n 236, 356; Francis R Hickey, ‘Traditional Marine Resource Management in Vanuatu: Acknowledging, Supporting and Strengthening Indigenous Management Systems’ (2006) 20 SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin 11, 11; Tom Graham and Noah Idechong, ‘Reconciling Customary and Constitutional Law: Managing Marine Resources in Palau, Micronesia’ (1998) 40 Ocean and Coastal Management 143, 146–7; Kenneth Ruddle, ‘The Context of Policy Design for Existing Community-Based Fisheries Management Systems in the Pacific Islands’ (1998) 40 Ocean and Coastal Management 105, 108.
- 248.
Ballard and Wilson, above n 27, 132, 149; Smith, above n 200, 5; Pepe Clarke and Charles Taylor Gillespie, Legal Mechanisms for the Establishment and Management of Terrestrial Protected Areas in Fiji (IUCN, 2009) 2.
- 249.
Crocombe, above n 32, 26.
- 250.
Ballard and Wilson, above n 27, 132.
- 251.
Jonathan M Lindsay, Creating Legal Space for Community-Based Management: Principles and Dilemmas (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 1998) 3; Veitayaki et al, above n 161, 41.
- 252.
Forsyth, above n 81, 44.
- 253.
Twining, above n 104, 114.
- 254.
Merry, above n 79, 873.
- 255.
Forsyth , above n 81, 46.
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Cases
Allardyce Lumber Company Ltd v Laore [1990] SBHC 46
Combined Fera Group v Attorney General [1997] SBHC 55
Legislation and Bills: Solomon Islands
Environment Act 1998
Forest Resources and Timber Utilisation Act (Cap. 40)
Land and Titles Act (Cap. 133)
Land Regulation 1914 (King’s Regulation No. 3) (UK)
Local Courts Act (Cap. 19)
Mines and Minerals Act (Cap. 42)
Native Courts Ordinance 1942
Pacific Order in Council 1893 (UK)
Protected Areas Act 2010
Protected Area Regulations 2012
Provincial Government Act 1997
Solomon Islands Independence Order 1978, sch (Constitution of Solomon Islands)
Conventions
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 17 December 1975)
United Nations Documents
Agenda 21, Report of the UNCED, I, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (1992)
Final Report on the Results of the Second Cycle of the Periodic Reporting Exercise for Asia and the Pacific, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/10A (1 June 2012)
ICOMOS, Evaluations of Nominations of Cultural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, WHC 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/INF/8B1 (2008) 92 (Chief Roi Mata’s Domain, Vanuatu, Advisory Body Evaluation 1280) 94
Presentation of the World Heritage Programme for the Pacific, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/11C (10 May 2007) annex I (Appeal to the World Heritage Committee from the Pacific Island State Parties)
WHC Res 34 COM 8B.20, WHC 34th sess, UN Doc WHC-10/34.COM/20 (3 September 2010) 206
WHC Res 37 COM 8B.25, WHC 37th sess, UN Doc WHC-13/37.COM/20 (5 July 2013) 186
Internet Materials
United Nations Committee for Development Policy, List of Least Developed Countries (as of March 2018) (2018) https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/ldc_list.pdf
Interviews
Interview by the author with a conservation officer in the Ministry of Environment (Honiara, 2 August 2013)
Other
Identification of World Heritage Properties in the Pacific: First World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands Region (Suva, Fiji, 15–18 July 1997)
Identification of World Heritage Properties in the Pacific: Second World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands Region (Port Vila, Vanuatu, 24–27 August 1999)
Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016)
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Price, S.C. (2018). The Pacific Context. In: World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific. Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0602-0_2
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