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Implementation of the World Heritage Convention by the Independent Pacific Island States

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World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies ((PSAPS))

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Abstract

This chapter provides an introduction to the World Heritage Convention and its implementation by the independent Pacific Island States. It explains the key features of the Convention and the World Heritage Committee’s Operational Guidelines. It then discusses the Committee’s adoption of the Global Strategy for a Representative, Balanced and Credible World Heritage List, and explains why few sites in the Pacific have been listed. The chapter argues that strengthening the legal protection of Pacific Island heritage could lead to greater Pacific representation on the World Heritage List, as well as helping to safeguard the region’s important cultural and natural sites.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The independent Pacific Island States are Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu (see Fig. 1.1). While this book refers to the Pacific region generally, it focuses on the independent Pacific Island States. Other States and overseas territories in the Pacific are not specifically discussed, because of their different histories, legal and governance systems, and/or territorial status.

  2. 2.

    See Table 1.2.

  3. 3.

    WHC Res CONF 203 VIII.A.1, WHC 22nd sess, UN Doc WHC-98/CONF/203/18 (29 January 1999) 25.

  4. 4.

    Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 17 December 1975) (‘World Heritage Convention’).

  5. 5.

    T Badman et al, Outstanding Universal Value: Standards for Natural World Heritage (IUCN, 2008) 24.

  6. 6.

    WHC Res 37 COM 7B.14, WHC 37th sess, UN Doc WHC-13/37.COM/20 (5 July 2013) 68.

  7. 7.

    See, for example, Paul Dingwall, Report on the Reactive Monitoring Mission to East Rennell, Solomon Islands, 21–29 October 2012 (IUCN, 2013). The threats to East Rennell are discussed in Sect. 5.3.1.

  8. 8.

    World Heritage Convention arts 4–5.

  9. 9.

    UNESCO, Records of the General Conference – volume 1, 17th sess (17 October–21 November 1972) 135.

  10. 10.

    Sarah M Titchen, ‘On the Construction of “Outstanding Universal Value”: Some Comments on the Implementation of the 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention’ (1996) 1 Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 235, 236.

  11. 11.

    World Heritage Convention arts 1–2.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., arts 4–5.

  13. 13.

    Ibid., preamble para 2.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., arts 6–7.

  15. 15.

    Ian Strasser, ‘Putting Reform into Action: Thirty Years of the World Heritage Convention: How to Reform a Convention without Changing its Regulations’ (2002) 11(2) International Journal of Cultural Property 215, 233.

  16. 16.

    UNESCO, State Parties Ratification Status http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/.

  17. 17.

    UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC.16/01 (26 October 2016) (‘Operational Guidelines 2016’). For an explanation of the history of the Operational Guidelines, see Sarah M Titchen, On the Construction of Outstanding Universal Value: UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention (Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972) and the Identification and Assessment of Cultural Places for Inclusion in the World Heritage List (PhD Thesis, Australian National University, 1995) 104–108. The World Heritage Committee has decided that the Operational Guidelines should be restricted to operational guidance, and a new policy document should be prepared to capture the policies that the Committee and the General Assembly have adopted. Work is underway to prepare this ‘Policy Compendium’. It will likely lead to substantial changes to the Operational Guidelines. For discussion, see Progress Report on the Draft Policy Compendium, WHC 42nd sess, UN Doc WHC/18/42.COM/11 (28 May 2018).

  18. 18.

    Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, part III.A.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., parts IV–V.

  20. 20.

    Ibid., part VII.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., part II.

  22. 22.

    Ibid., paras 77–78. The requirements for World Heritage listing are analysed in Sects. 3.3 and 4.3.3 of this book.

  23. 23.

    Strasser, above n 15, 245–246.

  24. 24.

    See, for example, Titchen, above n 10, 240; Sophia Labadi, UNESCO, Cultural Heritage and Outstanding Universal Value (AltaMira Press, 2013) 31; Lynn Meskell, ‘UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention at 40: Challenging the Economic and Political Order of International Heritage Conservation’ (2013) 54(4) Current Anthropology 483, 486.

  25. 25.

    WHC Res CONF 003 X.10, WHC 18th sess, UN Doc WHC-94/CONF.003/16 (31 January 1995) 41–44. See also Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, paras 55–58.

  26. 26.

    Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 60.

  27. 27.

    Ibid., para 61.

  28. 28.

    Ibid., para 47.

  29. 29.

    Badman et al, above n 5, 27.

  30. 30.

    WHC Res 27 COM 6A, WHC 27th sess, UN Doc WHC-03/27.COM/24 (10 December 2003) 7, 8. For a discussion of the history of the Pacific Programme, see Anita Smith, ‘The World Heritage Pacific 2009 Programme’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 2.

  31. 31.

    UNESCO, World Heritage – Pacific 2009 Programme http://whc.unesco.org/en/pacific2009.

  32. 32.

    This plan superseded the Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2010–2015. The 2016–2020 plan was adopted by delegates at a regional meeting in Suva, Fiji in December 2015. It was updated at a regional workshop in Palau in August/September 2017. See UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Final Report: Pacific Heritage Workshop, Koror, Palau, 30 August–1 September 2017 (UNESCO, 2018).

  33. 33.

    See, for example, Lasse Steiner and Bruno S Frey, ‘Correcting the Imbalance of the World Heritage List: Did the UNESCO Strategy Work?’ (2012) 3 Journal of International Organisation Studies 25, 38; Lynn Meskell, Claudia Liuzza and Nicholas Brown, ‘World Heritage Regionalism: UNESCO from Europe to Asia’ (2015) 22 International Journal of Cultural Property 437, 438.

  34. 34.

    ICOMOS, The World Heritage List: Filling the Gaps – An Action Plan for the Future (ICOMOS, 2004) 19; Joint ICOMOS-IUCN Paper and Papers by ICOMOS and IUCN on the Application of the Concept of Outstanding Universal Value, WHC 30th sess, UN Doc WHC-06/30.COM/INF (29 June 2006) 12, 38.

  35. 35.

    See, for example, Craig Forrest, International Law and the Protection of Cultural Heritage (Routledge, 2011) 247; Lynn Meskell, ‘The Rush to Inscribe: Reflections on the 35th Session of the World Heritage Committee, UNESCO Paris, 2011’ (2012) 37(2) Journal of Field Archaeology 145; Bruno S Frey, Paolo Pamini and Lasse Steiner, ‘Explaining the World Heritage List: An Empirical Study’ (2013) 60 International Review of Economics 1; Lynn Meskell, ‘States of Conservation: Protection, Politics and Pacting within UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee’ (2014) 87(1) Anthropological Quarterly 217; Enrico E Bertacchini and Donatella Saccone, ‘Toward a Political Economy of World Heritage’ (2012) 36 Journal of Cultural Economics 327.

  36. 36.

    See, for example, Meskell, above n 24, 489; Bruno S Frey and Lasse Steiner, ‘World Heritage List: Does it Make Sense?’ (2011) 17(5) International Journal of Cultural Policy 555, 560.

  37. 37.

    World Heritage Convention art 11(3).

  38. 38.

    Anita Smith, ‘Context for the Thematic Study’ in Anita Smith and Kevin L Jones (eds), Cultural Landscapes of the Pacific Islands (ICOMOS, 2007) 5, 5.

  39. 39.

    The two thematic studies are: Anita Smith and Kevin L Jones (eds), Cultural Landscapes of the Pacific Islands (ICOMOS, 2007); Ian Lilley (ed), Early Human Expansion and Innovation in the Pacific: Thematic Study (ICOMOS, 2010).

  40. 40.

    The requirements for a nomination dossier are prescribed in the Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, part III.B, annex 5. As noted by Bertacchini and Saccone, preparing nomination dossiers is very costly: see Bertacchini and Saccone, above n 35, 331.

  41. 41.

    Smith, above n 38, 5; Anita Smith, ‘Building Capacity in Pacific Island Heritage Management: Lessons from Those Who Know Best’ (2007) 3(3) Archaeologies 335, 347.

  42. 42.

    Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, paras 78, 97.

  43. 43.

    Ibid., para 97. The Committee’s decision to recognise customary protection of World Heritage sites is analysed in Sect. 4.3.3.

  44. 44.

    See, for example, Smith, above n 30, 5; Chris Ballard and Meredith Wilson, ‘Unseen Monuments: Managing Melanesian Cultural Landscapes’ in Ken Taylor and Jane L Lennon (eds), Managing Cultural Landscapes (Routledge, 2012) 130, 132; Pepe Clarke and Charles Taylor Gillespie, Legal Mechanisms for the Establishment and Management of Terrestrial Protected Areas in Fiji (IUCN, 2009) 2.

  45. 45.

    Anita Smith, ‘East Rennell World Heritage Site: Misunderstandings, Inconsistencies and Opportunities in the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention in the Pacific Islands’ (2011) 17(6) International Journal of Heritage Studies 592, 604.

  46. 46.

    Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016) 7.

  47. 47.

    WHC Res CONF 203 VIII.A.1, WHC 22nd sess, UN Doc WHC-98/CONF/203/18 (29 January 1999) 25.

  48. 48.

    Tegano is sometimes spelled Teganno or Te Nggano.

  49. 49.

    See, for example, Elspeth J Wingham, Nomination of East Rennell, Solomon Islands by the Government of Solomon Islands for Inclusion in the World Heritage List Natural Sites (1997) 10.

  50. 50.

    See, for example, Adoption of Retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/8E (15 June 2012) 55 (East Rennell, Solomon Islands). East Rennell’s Statement of Outstanding Universal Value was adopted by the World Heritage Committee pursuant to WHC Res 36 COM 8E, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 225.

  51. 51.

    See, for example, Simon Albert et al, Survey of the Condition of the Marine Ecosystem within the East Rennell World Heritage Area, Solomon Islands (University of Queensland, Solomon Islands Marine Ecology Laboratory, Griffith University and WWF-Solomon Islands, 2013).

  52. 52.

    Wingham, above n 49, 23.

  53. 53.

    Solomon Islands Government, Volume I Report on 2009 Population and Housing Census: Basic Tables and Census Description, Statistical Bulletin 6/2012 (Solomon Islands Government, 2012) 24. Population estimates for the site do however vary, in part reflecting permanent and/or temporary migration away from the site. The site’s World Heritage nomination dossier stated that in 1997 the population was approximately 1500 but declining: see Wingham, above n 49, 26. IUCN’s estimate in its review of the nomination dossier was 800: see IUCN, Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, WHC 22nd sess (1998) 79, 80. Wein estimated the population at 700: see Laurie Wein, East Rennell World Heritage Site Management Plan (Solomon Islands National Commission for UNESCO, 2007) 12. Anita Smith has estimated the population at around 700 people: see Smith, above n 45, 594. Gabrys and Heywood stated that the population was approximately 600 people: see Kasia Gabrys and Mike Heywood, ‘Community and Governance in the World Heritage Property of East Rennell’ in Anita Smith (ed), World Heritage in a Sea of Islands: Pacific 2009 Programme, World Heritage Papers 34 (UNESCO, 2012) 60, 60. The Statement of OUV for the site adopted by the World Heritage Committee in 2012 says the population is approximately 1200: see Adoption of Retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/8E (15 June 2012) 55; WHC Res 36 COM 8E, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 225.

  54. 54.

    See, for example, Wingham, above n 49, 27.

  55. 55.

    Adoption of Retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/8E (15 June 2012) 55 (East Rennell, Solomon Islands); WHC Res 36 COM 8E, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 225.

  56. 56.

    WHC Res 36 COM 8E, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 225. See Sects. 1.6.2 and 1.6.3 for discussion of the meaning of the terms ‘customary legal system’ and ‘customary protection’.

  57. 57.

    Ibid.

  58. 58.

    The term ‘West Rennell’ is used here to describe all parts of the island of Rennell other than East Rennell.

  59. 59.

    See, for example, Dingwall, above n 7, 4.

  60. 60.

    Ibid., 13–24.

  61. 61.

    The Committee placed the site on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2013: see WHC Res 37 COM 7B.14, WHC 37th sess, UN Doc WHC-13/37.COM.20 (5 July 2013) 68. The site has been retained on that list at all subsequent meetings.

  62. 62.

    UNESCO, Marovo – Tetepare Complex http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5414/.

  63. 63.

    John McKinnon, Solomon Islands World Heritage Site Proposal: Report on a Fact Finding Mission (4–22 February 1990) (Victoria University of Wellington, 1990); Charles d’E Darby, Rennell Island and Marovo Lagoon: A Proposal by Solomon Islands for World Heritage Site Listing as the Basis of a Sustainable Rural Development Programme (Conservation Development Services, 1989).

  64. 64.

    Elspeth J Wingham, World Heritage/Ecotourism Programme: Draft Project Implementation Document, August 1998, attached as attachment 3 to Elspeth J Wingham, Nomination of East Rennell, Solomon Islands by the Government of Solomon Islands for Inclusion in the World Heritage List Natural Sites (1997) 7.

  65. 65.

    UNESCO, above n 62.

  66. 66.

    UNESCO, Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Solomon Islands http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5416/.

  67. 67.

    Ibid.; UNESCO, above n 62.

  68. 68.

    There are now more than 300 regional organisations in the Pacific focused on a range of issues, including economic, religious, commercial, educational, technical, professional, cultural, sporting, and environmental issues: Ron Crocombe, The South Pacific (University of the South Pacific, 2001) 591.

  69. 69.

    See, for example, Convention for the Protection of Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (Noumea Convention), opened for signature 25 November 1986, 26 ILM 38 (entered into force 22 August 1990); Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (Apia Convention), opened for signature 12 June 1976, [1990] ATS 41 (entered into force 28 June 1990).

  70. 70.

    For example, the regional World Heritage workshop held in Suva, Fiji in December 2015. For details of other meetings and workshops, see, for example, Smith, above n 30.

  71. 71.

    Presentation of the World Heritage Programme for the Pacific, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/11C (10 May 2007) annex I (Appeal to the World Heritage Committee from the Pacific Island State Parties).

  72. 72.

    Ibid., annex I para 11.

  73. 73.

    Ibid., annex I para 9.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., annex I para 13.

  75. 75.

    Legal pluralism is commonly referred to as the existence of two or more legal orders in the same social field: Sally Engle Merry, ‘Legal Pluralism’ (1988) 22 Law and Society Review 869, 870; John Griffiths, ‘What is Legal Pluralism?’ (1986) 24 Journal of Legal Pluralism 1, 12.

  76. 76.

    Smith, above n 30, 9.

  77. 77.

    Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016) 3.

  78. 78.

    Smith, above n 30, 9–10.

  79. 79.

    Para 6.

  80. 80.

    Guido Carducci, ‘Articles 4–7 National and International Protection of the Cultural and Natural Heritage’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 103, 113.

  81. 81.

    World Heritage Convention arts 4–5, 12. For analysis of these provisions, see generally Carducci, above n 80; Federico Lenzerini, ‘Article 12 Protection of Properties Not Inscribed on the World Heritage List’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 201.

  82. 82.

    ‘Kastom’ is the pijin term for ‘custom’.

  83. 83.

    Miranda Forsyth, ‘Beyond Case Law: Kastom and Courts in Vanuatu’ (2004) 35 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 427, 431.

  84. 84.

    Allen et al, Justice Delivered Locally: Systems, Challenges and Innovations in Solomon Islands (World Bank, 2013) 34; Sue Farran, ‘Is Legal Pluralism an Obstacle to Human Rights? Considerations from the South Pacific’ (2006) 52 Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 77, 100.

  85. 85.

    For discussion of this issue, see Jennifer Corrin Care and Jean G Zorn, ‘Legislating pluralism: Statutory “Developments” in Melanesian Customary Law’ (2001) 46 Journal of Legal Pluralism 49, 52–3.

  86. 86.

    Geoffrey M White, ‘Three Discourses of Custom’ (1993) 6(4) Anthropological Forum 475, 492. See also Ton Otto, ‘Transformations of Cultural Heritage in Melanesia: From Kastom to Kalsa’ (2015) 21(2) International Journal of Heritage Studies 117. Writing about Manus in Papua New Guinea, Otto states that ‘kastom refers to a wide range of things and practices, including traditional leadership and conflict mediation, ceremonial exchange and transition rituals, traditional rights to land and sea, and beliefs about illness and spirits’: at 122. See also David Akin, ‘Ancestral Vigilance and the Corrective Conscience: Kastom as Culture in a Melanesian Society’ (2004) 4(3) Anthropological Theory 299. Akin says that kastom denotes ‘ideologies and activities formulated in terms of empowering indigenous traditions and practices’: at 299.

  87. 87.

    T W Bennett and T Vermeulen, ‘Codification of Customary Law’ (1980) 24(2) Journal of African Law 206, 215; Francesco Parisi, ‘The Formation of Customary Law’ (Paper presented at the 96th Annual Conference of the American Political Science Association, Washington DC, August 31–September 3, 2000) 4.

  88. 88.

    Farran, above n 84, 93; Jennifer Corrin Care, ‘Wisdom and Worthy Customs: Customary Law in the South Pacific’ (2002) 80 Reform 31, 32.

  89. 89.

    See, for example, Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 97.

  90. 90.

    Jim Fingleton (ed), Privatising Land in the Pacific: A Defence of Customary Tenures, Discussion Paper 80 (The Australia Institute, 2005) ix.

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  1. University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia

    Stephanie Clair Price

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  1. Stephanie Clair Price
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Price, S.C. (2018). Implementation of the World Heritage Convention by the Independent Pacific Island States. In: World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific. Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0602-0_1

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