Abstract
This study focuses on the inter-colonial trade in Indian guinée (Guinea cloth ), a blue cotton cloth produced in the French-controlled Indian territory of Pondicherry and exported to Senegal via France. Several works have shown that guinée cloth functioned as a currency in local trade—especially as a medium of exchange for gum arabic along the Senegal River. However, few studies focus on the broader issues of the global guinée trade. This study seeks to answer a series of questions using historical records obtained from Pondicherry , France, and Senegal: why the cloth had to be produced in Pondicherry , how much guinée cloth was transported to Senegal via France, and how the French government controlled this trade. In the process, the paper presents trade data for the period 1833–1921 concerning the quantities and prices of the guinée exported from France to Senegal, and French India’s share in the total imports of guinée into France. It also explains changes in trade policy and the reactions of each stakeholder. The significance of this study lies in the fact that it highlights the long-term global links between Pondicherry , France, and Senegal that formed as a result of the trade in guinée cloth.
This chapter is a revised version of a Japanese-language article entitled “Jūkyūseiki ni Senegaru ni Hakobareta Indosan Aizome Menpu Gine: Furansu ga Kaizai Shita Shokuminchikan Kōeki no Jittai” which was originally published in Shakai Keizai Shigaku 81 (2) (August 2015), pp. 95–116. The author wishes to thank the referees of the Japanese-language article for their painstaking comments. She is also grateful to the Socio-Economic History Society for the opportunity to publish the article in an English-language version. The author would also like to thank the translator, Helen Ballhatchet, for her dedicated work.
The author also benefitted greatly from the comments made by Professors Kitagawa Masahiko (Kansai University), Furukawa Masahiro (Doshisha University), and other members of the audience when she gave a paper entitled “Jūkyūseiki no Indo-san Aizome Menpu Guinée Kōeki kara Miru Furansu o Baikai to Shita Senegaru to Pondisherī no Keizai Kankei” (Economic Links between Senegal and Pondicherry via France during the Nineteenth Century: A Case Study of the Trade in Indian Guinée Cloth) at the Kinki branch meeting of the Socio-Economic History Society held at Doshisha University, Kyoto, on 19 October 2013.
The research for this paper was funded by two grants from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science: Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) (Grant Number 17730216) “Expatriate Companies and Regional Development: The case of Senegal in 19th Century” (April 2005–March 2007) and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) (Grant Number 24530394) “The Regional Fragmentation and the Integration to the World Economy of Western Africa through a Perspective of Currencies: 19th and 20th Century” (April 2012–March 2017). Especially, the first grant surpported the research for two review articles on guinée-gum arabic trade in Senegal, Masaki (2006 and 2007) leading to this article.
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Notes
- 1.
In Telugu, giniyà means “Guinea” and gudda means “cloth”.
- 2.
Contemporary records of correspondence between French naval ministers and governors of Senegal (Archives Nationales du Sénégal (ANS), Fonds Sénégal Colonial 1B, 2B) indicate the great interest of both parties in the guinée-gum arabic trade .
- 3.
For example, in the 1840s the colonial government decided to establish a monopoly enterprise in which merchants, brokers, and other agents involved in the gum arabic trade could invest, but this led to a dispute between merchants from Bordeaux, who agreed with the move, and merchants from Marseille, who had been excluded from participation in the company. Reports of the dispute and the arguments presented by the two sides can be found in ADG, Série M Sénégal 8M14.
- 4.
Information about the ways in which guinée produced in Pondicherry was used in trade with Africa can be found in some of the research that has been done into the French East India Company and in the records and reports left by eighteenth- and nineteenth-century merchants and adventurers. Of particular value is Duchon-Doris (1842). J.-P. Duchon-Doris Jr. himself is a merchant from Bordeaux who actually became involved in the production of guinée in Pondicherry. On the other hand, both Lobligeois (1972) and Weber (1988) have produced thorough studies of the production of guinée in Pondicherry.
- 5.
The first article of a royal ordonnance of 7 September 1840 stipulated that the command and superior administration of the colony of Senegal and its dependencies should be entrusted to a governor residing in Saint Louis. During the period after re-possession until that point, the chief officer of the colony had been governing without a proper legal basis, and only had the official title of “Commandant et Administrateur pour le Roi du Sénégal et Dépendances (Royal Commandant and Administrator of Senegal and Its Dependencies) (Sabatié 1925, p. 49). However, from 7 January 1828, when Jean Guillaume Jubelin took office, the title of Governor started to be used. See Annuaire du Sénégal et dépendances.
- 6.
The atelier de charité, which had its origins in the sixteenth century, was a public welfare institution that employed the destitute in work that would benefit society. Dictionnaire de l’Histoire de France, Larousse (2005, p. 74).
- 7.
Arrêté relatif à la création d’un établissement pour le tissage du coton à l’européenne (Order related to the building of a European-style cotton mill; 5 July 1828, Pondicherry). This order can be found in Bulletin des actes administratifs des établissements français de l’Inde (Bulletin of administrative orders related to institutions in French India [BAAEFI]), 1928, pp. 69–70.
- 8.
Ordonnance qui accorde divers encouragements à la filature, au tissage et à la teinture du coton (Ordinance giving various forms of encouragement for the spinning, weaving and dyeing of cotton textiles; 30 January 1828, Pondichéry), BAAEFI, 1928, pp. 4–5.
- 9.
Ordonnance qui accorde des primes à l’exportation par mer des tissus de coton fabriqués sur le territoire de Pondichéry (Ordinance giving bonuses for the export by sea of cotton manufactured in the territory of Pondicherry; 23 July 1828, Pondichéry), BAAEFI, 1928, pp. 74–75.
- 10.
The official gazettes produced in French India in the nineteenth century are the previously cited BAAEFI (1828–1866), and Bulletin officiel des établissements français de l’Inde (Official bulletin of French institutions in India [BOEFI]) (1867–1910).
- 11.
Note that the name of the company is sometimes given as Savanah and Savanna as well as Savana.
- 12.
Note sur la question de la guinée de l’Inde (Note concerning the issue of India guinée). (ANOM, Fonds Ministériels (FM), Série Géographique (SG), Inde Carton 494, Dossier 873.
- 13.
See Dictionnaire universel théorique et pratique du commerce et de la navigation (A universal dictionary of the theory and practice of business and navigation), vol. 2, H-Z, Paris: Librairie de Guillaumin (1861, pp. 918–919).
- 14.
Anon., Le Sénégal et les guinées de Pondichéry: Note présentée à la Commission Supérieure des Colonies par les négociants sénégalais (Senegal and guinée in Pondicherry: A note presented to the Higher Commission of the Colonies by merchants in Senegal), Bordeaux, 1879, pp. 7–8. Most of merchants who presented this note came from Bordeaux or had a strong relationship with this port town. This report can be downloaded from the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BNF) Gallica website.
- 15.
This information is based on a handwritten report by Martial sent to the governor of Senegal and its dependences, dated 23 November 1893 (ANOM FM, SG, Senegal IX 29 f). Louis Faidherbe, who first became governor of Senegal in 1854, extended direct French control inland by subjugating the existing African kingdoms. He divided the new French territory into administrative areas called cercles that were based on the geographical borders of the original kingdoms. (Ogawa 2015, pp. 238–239).
- 16.
Ibid.
- 17.
This order can be found in ANOM FM, SG, Sénégal IX 29 f.
- 18.
There were two types of bonded warehouse, public ( entrepôt réel ) and private ( entrepôt fictif ).
- 19.
Since 100 kg of guinée were equivalent to roughly 50 pieces, this meant that the duty on 100 kg transported on a foreign ship would be 250 francs as opposed to only 0.51 francs if the same amount was carried by a French ship. Since at this point of time, modern methods of cloth manufacture had not been fully developed in French India, this policy was probably aimed at helping French merchants rather than at protecting guinée produced in French territories.
- 20.
The Suez Canal was not officially opened until 1869 but according to Annuaire des établissements francais de l’Inde (Yearbook of French institutions in India, published annually in French India from 1850), regular services to Hong Kong via Suez and Ceylon had already begun in 1863. A ferry service from the port of Galle linked Ceylon to Pondicherry.
- 21.
Chambre de Commerce de Bordeaux, Entrepôt réel, tarifs des frais d’entrepôt (Public bonded warehouses, tariffs for handling charges), Bordeaux, 1868 (AMB 320F11).
- 22.
Guinées réglementaires (Regulated guinée) , p. 35, in ANOM, FM, SG, Senegal IX26 bis a. The title, author, and date are unknown.
- 23.
For example, an order of 18 December 1843 substituted the stamp for a piece of cardboard, but it was later realised that it would be difficult to find a secure way of attaching the cardboard. As a result, a further order of 24 August 1844 stipulated that a stamp of 56 millimetres in diameter should be substituted for the cardboard. There was also a gradual reduction of the inspection fee, until it was finally abolished completely.
- 24.
Minutes of the Senegal Conseil d’administration (Council of administration), 2 February 1849 (ANOM, FM, SG, Senegal IX 26 bis a).
- 25.
This is referred to in a letter from the Senegal Governor, Auguste Baudin, to the Minister of the Navy and the Colonies dated 9 April 1849 (ANOM, FM, SG, Senegal IX 26 bis a).
- 26.
Minutes of the Council of administration, 2 February 1849 (ANOM, FM, SG, Senegal IX 26 bis a).
- 27.
See the minutes of a Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce meeting dated 13 January 1852, in Chambre de Commerce de Bordeaux, Extraits des Procés-Verbaux (CCBEPV) (ADB BIB 7 I/M1), 1852, pp. 6–7.
- 28.
For the links between the Second Empire and Bordeaux, with its support for free trade, see Nomura (2002).
- 29.
After signing the treaty France announced its intention to reduce tariffs to 30% in the next two years, and to less than 25% in the next five years (Legatte 1953: 496).
- 30.
This discriminatory tariff is mentioned in a letter from Pondicherry merchants to Governor Auguste Baudin dated 9 March 1865. See Chambre de Commerce de Pondichéry, Législation et réglementation douanières (Customs laws and regulations), 1865 (ANOM FM, SG, Sénégal IX 26 bis c), pp. 6–7.
- 31.
ANOM, FM, SG, Sénégal IX 26bis b contains documents that show the appearance of various problems involving the colonial government in relation to the direct transport of guinée to Senegal by Bordeaux trading companies during the years 1862 and 1863.
- 32.
This ordinance also permitted the re-export of any goods imported to Senegal regardless of their port of origin or the country in which the ship was registered. However, an additional tariff of 20 francs per ton was to be paid on all exports to France carried by foreign ships.
- 33.
See unknown author, Le Sénégal et les guinées de Pondichéry: Note présentée à la commission supérieure des colonies par les négociants sénégolais, Bordeaux, 1879, pp. 5–6.
- 34.
In 1879 a petition calling for the continuation of the protectionist measures of 1877 was presented to the French Senate. Included as evidence were a large number of documents that showed that during the period 1875–1876, there were trading companies in Bordeaux that had either purchased guinée from companies in Manchester or had begun negotiations in order to so. Whether guinée purchased in this way was exported via France or directly from Britain is not made clear, but the documents prove that in 1875 French trading companies were ordering guinée from Manchester (See ANOM, FM, SG, Sénégal IX 28a.).
- 35.
ANOM, FM, SG, Sénégal IX 26bis c.
- 36.
“Dépêche ministérielle au sujet de la prime à la sortie accordée aux produits des filatures, Paris, 3 mai 1875” (Ministerial news release regarding the bonus that has been agreed for textile products), BOEFI, Pondichérie, 1875, pp. 181–182.
- 37.
See the minutes of the Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce for 20 April 1880 (CCBEPV, 1880, p. 426).
- 38.
See the minutes of the Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce for 2 February 1880 (CCBEPV, 1880, p. 159).
- 39.
See the minutes of the Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce for 20 April 1880 (CCBEPV, 1880, pp. 416–427).
- 40.
‘Pétition adressée au Sénat pour demander le maintien du décret du 19 juillet 1877 sur les toiles bleues dites guinées suivie de quelques observations soumises à la commission supérieure des colonies’ (Petition to the Senate calling for the continuation of the decree of 19 July 1877 with regard to the blue cloth known as guinée, followed by several observations directed at the Higher Commission for the Colonies; ANOM, FM, SG, Sénégal IX 28a).
- 41.
In 1880, Hubert Prom, another founder of Maurel and Prom, was vice president of the Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce, and Marc Maurel (a cousin of Emile) was in charge of its accounts.
- 42.
A report of the proceedings was published by Bordeaux chamber of commerce, Enquête sur la Liberté du Commerce des Guinées au Sénégal (Inquiry into free trade with reference to guinée exports to Senegal), Séance du 5 Mai 1880, Bordeaux: Imprimerie G. Gounouilhou, 1880. This can be downloaded from BNP Gallica. The report includes the names of those who attended and the official titles of the posts held by each director.
- 43.
See the minutes of the Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce meeting dated 5 May 1880 (CCBEPV, 1880, p. 490).
- 44.
ANOM, FM, SG, Sénégal IX 27 c contains a petition from Rouen asking for revision of the 1.8 kg limit on cloth that could receive preferential tariff treatment, the justification for the limit being that heavier guinée cost more to transport.
- 45.
Anon., L’industrie de la teinture à Pondichéry menacé par la protection des guinées, Bordeaux; Agué-Delile Fils & Cie, March 1883 (ANOM, FM, SG, Sénégal IX 28b).
- 46.
The original title is L’industrie de la teinture a pondichéry menace par la protection de la guinée.
- 47.
Chaumel-Durin & Cie, Réponse à la brochure intitulée l’industrie de la teinture à Pondichéry menacé par la protection des guinées (Reply to the pamphlet entitled The Pondicherry Dyeing Industry Threatened by the Protection of Guinée, Bordeaux; Imprimerie bordelaise, May 1883 (ANOM, FM, SG, Sénégal IX 28b).
- 48.
See the overview report presented for the consideration of the Supreme Council for the Colonies by the Colonial Services Bureau of the Ministry of the Navy and the Colonies in December 1883 (ANOM FM, SG, Sénégal IX29 b).
- 49.
“Dépêche ministérielle, Régime des guinées tissées en France et teintes à Pondichéry” (Ministerial news release regarding the management of guinée woven in France and dyed in Pondicherry), Paris, 15 June 1885, BOEFI, 1885, pp. 464–465.
Primary Sources
Archival materials.
Archives Nationales du Sénégal (ANS), Fonds Sénégal Colonial 1B, 2B.
Archives Départementales de la Gironde (ADG), Série M Sénégal 8M14, Chamber de Commerce de Bordeaux (Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce), Extraits des Procés-Verbaux (Extracts from Prces-verbal) BIB7 I/M1.
Archives Municipales de Bordeaux (AMB), 320 F11.
Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer (ANOM), France Fonds Ministériels (FM), Série Géographique (SG), Inde Carton 494.
Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer (ANOM), France Fonds Ministériels (FM), Série Géographique (SG), Sénégal, IX, 26, 27 c, 28, 28 b, 29 f.
Official publications.
Ministère des colonies. Bulletin de l’agence générale des colonies (Bulletin of the General Agency of the Colonies). No.192, Décembre, 1923. (Downloadable from BNF Gallica).
Ministère des colonies. Bulletin de l’office colonial (Bulletin of the Colonial Office). Vol. 11, Nos. 121–122, January–February, 1918. (Downloadable from BNF Gallica).
Annuaire des établissements francais de l’Inde (Yearbook of French institutions in India). Pondichéry: Imprimerie du Gouvernement.
Bulletin des actes administratifs des établissements français de l’Inde (Bulletin of administrative acts by French institutions in India) (BAAEF), 1828–1866. Pondichéry: Imprimerie du Gouvernement.
Bulletin officiel des établissements français de l’Inde (Official bulletin of French institutions in India, Pondicherry) (BOEFI), 1867–1910. Pondichéry: Imprimerie du Gouvernement.
Statistical Publications.
Tableau Général du Commerce de la France avec ses Colonies et les puissances étrangères (General table of French trade with the colonies and with the foreign powers), 1825–1895.
Tableau général du commerce et de la navigation (General table of commerce and navigation), 1896–1921.
Dictionary.
Dictionnaire universel théorique et pratique du commerce et de la navigation (A universal dictionary of the theory and practice of business and navigation), vol. 2, H-Z. Paris: Librairie de Guillaumin, 1861.
Dictionnaire de l’Histoire de France, Paris: Larousse, 2005.
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Masaki, T. (2018). The Export of Indian Guinée to Senegal via France: Inter-colonial Trade in the Long Nineteenth Century. In: Shiroyama, T. (eds) Modern Global Trade and the Asian Regional Economy. Monograph Series of the Socio-Economic History Society, Japan. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0375-3_4
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