Abstract
Iran’s Reform movement has been a central player in Iranian politics for more than two decades. Reformists have played roles both inside and outside formal politics, including as members of the Iranian parliament, as political leaders during the Khatami presidency (1997–2005) and as the vanguard of the 2009 Green Movement protests. However, the Green Movement uprising exacted an enormous cost on the Reform movement, with many of its members jailed or exiled. This chapter examines the health of the Reformist movement since 2009, looking at changing patterns of political contestation, the negotiation of changed political opportunity structures and the way in which the regime has changed its strategies of repression. Indeed, while the Reform movement’s political space was reduced significantly in the aftermath of 2009, its ability to morph to the changing political landscape has enabled it to endure, albeit in a diminished form.
Keywords
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- 1.
Shahram Akbarzadeh and James Barry, ‘Negotiating Popular Mandate and the Sovereignty of God in Iran,’ in The Politics of Islamism: Diverging Visions and Trajectories, ed. John Esposito, Lily Zubaidah Rahim, and Naser Ghobadzadeh (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
- 2.
‘Freedom in the World 2017,’ (2017) Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2017/iran
- 3.
Naser Ghobadzadeh and Lily Zubaidah Rahim, ‘Electoral theocracy and hybrid sovereignty in Iran,’ Contemporary Review 22, no. 4 (2016). p. 453; Steven Letivsky and Lucan A. Way, Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid regimes after the Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). p. 14.
- 4.
Pejman Abdolmohammadi and Giampiero Cama, ‘Iran as a Peculiar Hybrid Regime: Structure and Dynamics of the Islamic Republic,’ British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 42, no. 4 (2015). p. 558.
- 5.
Holger Albrecht, ‘Political Opposition and Arab Authoritarianism,’ in Contentious Politics in the Middle East: Poliitcal Opposition under Authoritarianism, ed. Holger Albrecht (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010). p. 21.
- 6.
Arang Keshavarzian, ‘Regime Loyalty and Bāzārī Representation under the Islamic Republic of Iran: Dilemmas of the Society of Islamic Coalition,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 2 (2009). p. 241.
- 7.
Holger Albrecht, ‘Political Opposition and Arab Authoritarianism,’ in Contentious Politics in the Middle East: Political Opposition under Authoritarianism, ed. Holger Albrecht (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010). p. 21.
- 8.
‘Political Opposition and Arab Authoritarianism.’ p. 21.
- 9.
Misagh Parsa, Democracy in Iran: Why it failed and how it might succeed (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016). p. 284.
- 10.
Omid Shams, (2018) ‘Iran’s reformists have sided with the hardliners – and doomed their cause’ Al-Monitor, (January 6) https://theconversation.com/irans-reformists-have-sided-with-the-hardliners-and-doomed-their-cause-89604
- 11.
Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). p. 5.
- 12.
Charles Tilly and Sidney Tarrow, Contentious Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015). pp. 111–112.
- 13.
Mehran Kamrava, Iran’s Intellectual Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). Kamrava (2008: 42).
- 14.
Charles Tilly, Popular Contention in Great Britain, 1758–1834 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998). Chap. 7.
- 15.
Stephen Kinzer, (1997) ‘Moderate Leader is elected in Iran by a wide margin,’ The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/25/world/moderate-leader-is-elected-in-iran-by-a-wide-margin.html
- 16.
Misagh Parsa, Democracy in Iran: Why it failed and how it might succeed. p. 150.
- 17.
Cited in ‘Iranian Elections, 1997–2001,’ (ND) PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/tehran/inside/elections.html
- 18.
Colin Smith, 1999 ‘Return to Tehran: Twenty Years On, Iran’s Veils Fall,’ The Observer.
- 19.
A. William Samii, ‘Iran’s Guardians Council as an Obstacle to Democracy,’ The Middle East Journal 55, no. 4 (2001). p. 648.
- 20.
David Gardner, 1998 ‘Mullahs’ election ploy backfires,’ Financial Times, October 28.
- 21.
Bill Samii, (2006) ‘Iran: Preparing For A Defining Election’ Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, (August 1) https://www.rferl.org/a/1070240.html
- 22.
‘Iranian Elections could lead to Reforms,’ 1998, October 28.
- 23.
‘Iran prepares for first-ever local elections,’ (1999) BBC News, (February 10) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/276816.stm
- 24.
David Gardner, 1998 ‘Mullahs’ election ploy backfires,’ Financial Times, October 28.
- 25.
Iran: Khatami calls on people to sustain campaign for accountable government (2001), Vision of the Islamic Republic of Iran Network, (Tehran: BBC Monitoring Middle East, May 25, 2 PM).
- 26.
Jonathan Lyons, 1998 ‘Democracy stumbles in Iranian elections Government, clerical establishment battle over vetting candidates for town, village councils,’ The Globe and Mail, December 29.
- 27.
Colin Smith, 1999 ‘Return to Tehran: Twenty Years On, Iran’s Veils Fall,’ The Observer.
- 28.
Geneive Abdo, ‘Electoral Politics in Iran,’ Middle East Policy VI, no. 4 (1999).
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
‘Iranian President blasts hardliners,’ (1999) BBC News, (April 29) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/331381.stm
- 31.
Fatemeh Haghighatjoo, ‘The Green Movement and Political Change in Iran,’ in Power and Change in Iran: Politics of Contention and Conciliation, ed. Daniel Brumberg and Farideh Farhi (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016).
- 32.
‘Increasing Number of Iranian Women in Local Governance,’ (2017) Financial Tribune, (May 25) https://financialtribune.com/articles/people/65161/increasing-number-of-iranian-women-in-local-governance
- 33.
Laura Secor, (2005) ‘Fugitives: Young Iranians confront the collapse of the Reform movement,’ The New Yorker, (November 21) https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/11/21/fugitives-2
- 34.
Siamak Namazi, (2003) ‘Iran’s Upcoming Parliamentary Elections Up for Grabs’ Middle East Research and Information Project, (November 23) http://www.merip.org/mero/mero112303
- 35.
Scott Peterson, 1999 ‘No clear victor in Iran’s week-long tug of war,’ The Christian Science Monitor, July 16.
- 36.
Suzanne Maloney, (2014) ‘Fifteen Years After the 18th of Tir: The Legacy of Student Protests That Shook Iran,’ The Brookings Institute, (July 10) https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2014/07/10/fifteen-years-after-the-18th-of-tir-the-legacy-of-student-protests-that-shook-iran/
- 37.
Siamak Namazi, (2003) ‘Iran’s Upcoming Parliamentary Elections Up for Grabs’ Middle East Research and Information Project, (November 23) http://www.merip.org/mero/mero112303
- 38.
Fatemeh Haghighatjoo, ‘The Green Movement and Political Change in Iran.’ p. 227.
- 39.
Suzanne Maloney, (2014) ‘Fifteen Years After the 18th of Tir: The Legacy of Student Protests That Shook Iran,’ The Brookings Institute, (July 10) https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2014/07/10/fifteen-years-after-the-18th-of-tir-the-legacy-of-student-protests-that-shook-iran/
- 40.
Cited in: Misagh Parsa, Democracy in Iran: Why it failed and how it might succeed. p. 158.
- 41.
Arshin Adib-Moghaddam, ‘The pluralistic momentum in Iran and the future of the reform movement,’ Third World Quarterly 27, no. 4 (2006). p. 666.
- 42.
‘Iran eases on election, but many reformists are still banned,’ (2008) The New York Times, (November 3) http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/13/world/africa/13iht-iran.4.10021773.html
- 43.
Shahram Akbarzadeh and Dara Conduit, ‘Rouhani’s First Two Years in Office: Opportunities and Risks in Contemporary Iran,’ in Iran in the World: President Rouhani’s Foreign Policy, ed. Shahram Akbarzadeh and Dara Conduit (New York: Palgrave, 2015). p. 2.
- 44.
‘Iran candidate Mousavi backs women’s rights,’ (2009) BBC News, (May 30) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8075603.stm
- 45.
Robert F. Worth and Nazila Fathi, (2009) ‘Huge campaign rallies snarl Tehran,’ The New York Times, (June 8) http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/09/world/middleeast/09iran.html
- 46.
Cited in: Dudi Cohen, (2009) ‘Clear win for Ahmadinejad,’ YNet, (June 13) https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3730466,00.html
- 47.
Cited in: ibid.
- 48.
Robert F. Worth and Farideh Farhi, (2009) ‘Protests flare in Tehran as opposition disputes vote,’ The New York Times, (June 13) http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/14/world/middleeast/14iran.html
- 49.
Thomas Erdbrink, (2009) ‘Hundreds of Thousands March in Tehran to Protest Iranian Election,’ The Washington Post, (June 16) http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/15/AR2009061500387.html Parenthesis added.
- 50.
Flynt Leverett and Hillary Mann Leverett, Going to Tehran: Why the United States Must Come to Terms with the Islamic Republic of Iran (New York: Picador).
- 51.
Doug McAdam and William H. Sewell, ‘It’s about time. Temporality in the study of social movements and revolutions,’ in Silence and voice in the study of contentious politics, ed. Ronald R. Aminzade, et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). p. 112.
- 52.
Robert F. Worth and Nazila Fathi, (2009) ‘Unrest deepens as critics are detained,’ The New York Times, (June 14) http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/15/world/middleeast/15iran.html
- 53.
Ibid.
- 54.
Parisa Hafezi and Fredrik Dahl, (2009) ‘Defiant, Iran’s Mousavi urges more protests,’ Reuters, (June 21) https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-election/defiant-irans-mousavi-urges-more-protests-idUSTRE55F54520090621
- 55.
Ian Black, (2009) ‘Mousavi calls for continued protests against government,’ The Irish Times, (July 2) https://www.irishtimes.com/news/mousavi-calls-for-continued-protests-against-government-1.691129
- 56.
Saeed Kamali Dehghan and Ian Black, (2009) ‘Iranian protesters clash with security forces during Neda Soltan memorial‘ The Guardian, (July 31) https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/30/iran-protesters-clash-neda-soltan
- 57.
Abbas Milani, ‘The Green Movement,’ in The Iran Primer: Power, Politics, and U.S. Policy, ed. Robin B. Wright (Washington D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 2010). p. 42.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Suzanne Maloney, (2012) ‘The Impact of the Parliamentary Elections in Iran,’ The Brookings Institute, (March 2) https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2012/03/02/the-impact-of-the-parliamentary-elections-in-iran/
- 60.
‘https://www.rferl.org/a/Iran_Said:To_Ban_Largest_Reformist_Party/1984541.html,’ (2010) Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, (March 15) https://www.rferl.org/a/Iran_Said:To_Ban_Largest_Reformist_Party/1984541.html
- 61.
Saeed Kamali Dehghan, (2015) ‘Iranian media banned from mentioning former president Mohammad Khatami,’ The Guardian, (February 18) https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/17/iranian-media-banned-from-mentioning-mohammad-khatami
- 62.
Yasmin Alem, (2012) ‘Iran Starts Slashing Candidates – Q&A,’ PBS Tehran Bureau, (January 24) https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2012/01/elections-iran-starts-slashing-candidates.html
- 63.
Ibid.
- 64.
Denise Hassanzade Ajiri, (2016) ‘“Reality is even worse”: reformist hopefuls banned from Iran’s parliamentary poll,’ The Guardian, (January 19) https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2016/jan/19/iran-guardian-council-blocks-reformists-february-parliamentary-poll
- 65.
Mehrun Etebari, (2013) ‘Iranian Public Opinion Polling and Rouhani’s Electoral Victory,’ The Brookings Institute, (August 8) https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2013/08/08/iranian-public-opinion-polling-and-rouhanis-electoral-victory/
- 66.
Ibid.
- 67.
Saeed Kamali Dehghan, (2013) ‘Iran elections: former presidents endorse moderate Hassan Rouhani‘ The Guardian, (June 12) https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/11/iran-elections-presidents-endorse-rouhani
- 68.
Elaine Sciolino, (1999) ‘Turning Tables In Iran, Crowds Back Old Line,’ The New York Times, (July 15) http://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/15/world/turning-tables-in-iran-crowds-back-old-line.html
- 69.
Dara Conduit and Shahram Akbarzadeh, ‘The “inside track” approach to change in Iran under President Rouhani: The case of freedom on the internet,’ in Human Rights and Drivers of Change in Iran, ed. Rebecca Barlow and Shahram Akbarzadeh (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018). Forthcoming.
- 70.
‘Celebrating Rouhani’s victory in Iran makes a mockery of green movement,’ (2013) The Guardian, (July 12) https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2013/jul/12/iran-hassan-rouhani-green-movement
- 71.
Parisa Hafezi and Hashem Kalantari, (2012) ‘Khamenei allies trounce Ahmadinejad in Iran election,’ Reuters, (March 4) https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-iran-election-result/khamenei-allies-trounce-ahmadinejad-in-iran-election-idUKTRE82306820120304
- 72.
Yasmin Alem, (2012) ‘Iran Starts Slashing Candidates – Q&A,’ PBS Tehran Bureau, (January 24) https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2012/01/elections-iran-starts-slashing-candidates.html
- 73.
Parisa Hafezi, (2016) ‘Iran’s main opposition leaderless, but insists it’s not a spent force,’ Reuters, (February 12) https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-election-opposition-insight/irans-main-opposition-leaderless-but-insists-its-not-a-spent-force-idUSKCN0VK1DM
- 74.
Denise Hassanzade Ajiri, (2016) ‘“Reality is even worse”: reformist hopefuls banned from Iran’s parliamentary poll,’ The Guardian, (January 19) https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2016/jan/19/iran-guardian-council-blocks-reformists-february-parliamentary-poll
- 75.
Katayoun Kishi, (2016) ‘Iran’s Election Coalitions,’ United States Institute of Peace, (February 24) http://iranprimer.usip.org/blog/2016/feb/24/irans-election-coalitions
- 76.
Robin Wright, (2016) ‘Iran’s voters sent a message to the hard-liners,’ The New Yorker, (March 1) https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/irans-voters-sent-a-message-to-the-hard-liners
- 77.
Agence France Presse, (2018) ‘Iran authorities should listen to popular demands: Khatami,’ Daily Star, (January 17) http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2018/Jan-17/434053-iran-authorities-should-listen-to-popular-demands-khatami.ashx
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Conduit, D., Akbarzadeh, S. (2018). The Iranian Reform Movement Since 2009. In: Conduit, D., Akbarzadeh, S. (eds) New Opposition in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8821-6_6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8821-6_6
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