A Sustainable System-of-Systems Approach: Identifying the Important Boundaries for a Target System in Human Factors and Ergonomics

  • Andrew Thatcher
  • Paul H. P. Yeow
Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

The problems now facing humanity are complex and rapidly evolving. In fact, these problems even threaten our very existence as a species. The sustainable system-of-systems model, which has been developed to help characterise the various different levels of human factors and ergonomics approaches to dealing with these problems, is explained and critiqued this chapter. We then look at the various possible ways to address the “fuzzy boundary” problem of complex adaptive systems for human factors and ergonomics. These possible solutions include the Pareto Principle, Stakeholder Salience Theory, Soft Systems Methodology, and Network Theory. The example of the design of a green building workplace layout is used to illustrate the concepts. The chapter concludes with a critique of what we consider to be the most promising of these solutions at present, the Network Theory.

Keywords

Stakeholder Salience Theory Soft Systems Methodology Network Theory Sustainable system-of-systems Green buildings 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

References

  1. Ali, S. H. (2004). A socio-ecological autopsy of the E. coli O157: H7 outbreak in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 2601–2612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Amoroso, L. (1938). Vilfredo Pareto. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 6, 1–21.Google Scholar
  3. Barnhart, M., & Mish, J. (2017). Hippies, hummer owners, and people like me: stereotyping as a means of reconciling ethical consumption values with the DSP. Journal of Macromarketing, 37, 57–71.Google Scholar
  4. Bell, S., & Morse, S. (2004). Experiences with sustainability indicators and stakeholder participation: A case study relating to a ‘Blue Plan’ project in Malta. Sustainable Development, 12, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Bergvall-Kåreborn, B., Mirijamdotter, A., & Basden, A. (2004). Basic principles of SSM modeling: An examination of CATWOE from a soft perspective. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 17, 55–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Boudeau, C., Wilkin, P., & Dekker, S. W. (2014). Ergonomics as authoritarian or libertarian: Learning from Colin Ward’s politics of design. The Design Journal, 17, 91–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Brooks, A. (1998). Ergonomic approaches to office layout and space planning. Facilities, 16, 73–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Carayannis, T., Bojicic-Dzelilovic, V., Olin, N., Rigterink, A., & Schomerus, M. (2014). Practice without evidence: Interrogating conflict resolution approaches and assumptions. Justice and Security Research Programme, International Development Department, London School of Economics.Google Scholar
  9. Checkland, P. B. (1972). Towards a systems-based methodology for real-world problem solving. Journal of Systems Engineering, 3, 87–116.Google Scholar
  10. Checkland, P. B. (2000). Soft systems methodology: A thirty year retrospective. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 17, S11–S58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Checkland, P. B., & Davies, L. (1986). The use of the term ‘Weltanschauung’ in soft systems methodology. Journal of Applied Systems Analysis, 13, 109–115.Google Scholar
  12. Conklin, J. (2006). Dialogue mapping: Building shared understanding of wicked problems. Chichester, UK: Wiley.Google Scholar
  13. Costanza, R., & Patten, B. C. (1995). Defining and predicting sustainability. Ecological Economics, 15, 193–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Dekker, S. W., Hancock, P. A., & Wilkin, P. (2013). Ergonomics and sustainability: Towards an embrace of complexity and emergence. Ergonomics, 56, 357–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Easley, D., & Kleinberg, J. (2010). Networks, crowds, and markets: Reasoning about a highly connected world. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Edwards, C., Spence, P. R., Gentile, C. J., Edwards, A., & Edwards, A. (2013). How much Klout do you have… A test of system generated cues on source credibility. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, A12–A16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Elkington, J. (1998). Cannibals with forks: The triple bottom line of 21st century business. Oxford, UK: Capstone.Google Scholar
  18. Genaidy, A. M., Sequeira, R., Rinder, M. M., & A-Rehim, A. D. (2009). Determinants of business sustainability: An ergonomics perspective. Ergonomics, 52, 273–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Gunderson, L. H., & Holling, C. S. (2002). Panarchy: Understanding transformation in human and natural systems. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
  20. Haines, H., Wilson, J. R., Vink, P., & Koningsveld, A. E. (2002). Validating a framework for participatory ergonomics (the PEF). Ergonomics, 45, 309–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Hakansson, H., & Ford, D. (2002). How should companies interact in business networks? Journal of Business Research, 55, 133–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Hawkes, J. (2001). The fourth pillar of sustainability: Culture’s essential role in public planning. Melbourne, Australia: Common Ground.Google Scholar
  23. Hecht, A. D., Fiksel, J., Fulton, S. C., Yosie, T. F., Hawkins, N. C., Leuenberger, H., et al. (2012). Creating the future we want. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 8, 62–75.Google Scholar
  24. Hollnagel, E. (2012). FRAM: The functional resonance analysis method: Modelling complex socio-technical systems. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
  25. Horn, R. E., & Weber, R. P. (2007). New tools for resolving wicked problems: Mess mapping and resolution mapping processes. Watertown, MA: Strategy Kinetics LLC.Google Scholar
  26. Imai, M. (1986). Kaizen – The key to Japan’s competitive success. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
  27. Jackson, M. C., & Keys, P. (1984). Towards a system of systems methodologies. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 35, 473–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Karsh, B. T., Waterson, P., & Holden, R. J. (2014). Crossing levels in systems ergonomics: A framework to support ‘mesoergonomic’ inquiry. Applied Ergonomics, 45, 45–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Kodas, M. (2014). How did palm oil become such a problem – And what can we do about it? ENASIA, November 3, 2014. http://ensia.com/features/how-did-palm-oil-become-such-a-problem-and-what-can-we-do-about-it/. Accessed 13 July 2016.
  30. Lange-Morales, K., Thatcher, A., & García-Acosta, G. (2014). Towards a sustainable world through human factors and ergonomics: It is all about values. Ergonomics, 57, 1603–1615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Levin, K., Cashore, B., Bernstein, S., & Auld, G. (2012). Overcoming the tragedy of super wicked problems: Constraining our future selves to ameliorate global climate change. Policy Sciences, 45, 123–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Maier, M. W. (1998). Architecturing principles for systems of systems. Systems Engineering, 1, 267–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Manuaba, A. (2007). A total approach in ergonomics is a must to attain humane, competitive and sustainable work systems and products. Journal of Human Ergology, 36, 23–30.Google Scholar
  34. Meadows, D. (1999). Leverage points: Places to intervene in a system. Hartland, VT: The Sustainability Institute.Google Scholar
  35. Merton, R. K. (1936). The unanticipated consequences of purposive social action. American Sociological Review, 1, 894–904.Google Scholar
  36. Milgram, S. (1967). The small world problem. Psychology Today, 2, 60–67.Google Scholar
  37. Mitchell, R. K., Agle, B. R., & Wood, D. J. (1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22, 853–886.Google Scholar
  38. Munasinghe, M. (2009). Sustainable development in practice: Sustainomics methodology and applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  39. Murphy, R. (2012). Sustainability: A wicked problem. Sociologica, 6, 1–23.Google Scholar
  40. Newman, M. E. (2003). The structure and function of complex networks. SIAM Review, 45, 167–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Öberg, C., Huge-Brodin, M., & Björklund, M. (2012). Applying a network level in environmental impact assessments. Journal of Business Research, 65, 247–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Paliwal, P. (2005). Sustainable development and systems thinking: A case study of a heritage city. The International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 12, 213–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Philip, S. Y., Han, J., & Faloutsos, C. (2010). Link mining: Models, algorithms, and applications. Berlin, Germany: Springer.Google Scholar
  44. Richardson, M., & Ball, L. J. (2009). Internal representations, external representations and ergonomics: Towards a theoretical integration. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 10, 335–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Rittel, H. W., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4, 155–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Salmon, P. M., Walker, G. H., Read, G. J. M., Goode, N., & Stanton, N. A. (2017). Fitting methods to paradigms: Are ergonomics methods fit for systems thinking? Ergonomics, 60, 194–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Scerri, A., & James, P. (2010). Communities of citizens and ‘indicators’ of sustainability. Community Development Journal, 45, 219–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Schultz, E., & Barnett, B. (2015). Cognitive directive mapping: Designing futures that challenge anthropocentrism. Nordes, 6. http://www.nordes.org/opj/index.php/n13/article/view/398/376
  49. Scott, J. (2012). Social network analysis. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
  50. Snehota, I., & Hakansson, H. (Eds.). (1995). Developing relationships in business networks. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
  51. Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M., & De Haan, C. (2006). Livestock’s long shadow. Rome: FAO.Google Scholar
  52. Svedung, I., & Rasmussen, J. (2002). Graphic representation of accident scenarios: Mapping system structure and the causation of accidents. Safety Science, 40, 397–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Thatcher, A. (2013). Green ergonomics: Definition and scope. Ergonomics, 56, 389–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Thatcher, A. (2016). Longevity in a sustainable human factors and ergonomics system-of-systems. Plenary address at the 22nd Semana de Salud Ocupacional in Medellin Bogota.Google Scholar
  55. Thatcher, A., & Yeow, P. H. P. (2016a). A sustainable system of systems approach: A new HFE paradigm. Ergonomics, 59, 167–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Thatcher, A., & Yeow, P. H. P. (2016b). Human factors for a sustainable future. Applied Ergonomics, 57, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Walker, G. H., Gibson, H., Stanton, N. A., Baber, C., Salmon, P., & Green, D. (2006). Event analysis of systemic teamwork (EAST): A novel integration of ergonomics methods to analyse C4i activity. Ergonomics, 49, 1345–1369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Walker, G. H., Stanton, N. A., Salmon, P. M., Jenkins, D. P., & Rafferty, L. (2010). Translating concepts of complexity to the field of ergonomics. Ergonomics, 53, 1175–1186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Wilson, J. R. (2000). Fundamentals of ergonomics in theory and practice. Applied Ergonomics, 31, 557–567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Wilson, J. R. (2014). Fundamentals of systems ergonomics/human factors. Applied Ergonomics, 45, 5–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Wisner, A. (1985). Ergonomics in industrially developing countries. Ergonomics, 28, 1213–1224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Zhang, H., Calvo-Amodio, J., & Haapala, K. R. (2015). Establishing foundational concepts for sustainable manufacturing systems assessment through systems thinking. International Journal of Strategic Engineering Asset Management, 2, 249–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Zink, K. J. (2014). Designing sustainable work systems: The need for a systems approach. Applied Ergonomics, 45, 126–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© The Author(s) 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  • Andrew Thatcher
    • 1
  • Paul H. P. Yeow
    • 2
  1. 1.Psychology DepartmentUniversity of the WitwatersrandJohannesburgSouth Africa
  2. 2.School of BusinessMonash University MalaysiaBandar SunwayMalaysia

Personalised recommendations