Abstract
Miniature carved wooden figurines from Ningbo were consumed by missionaries, travellers, and occasional museum collectors. Inexpensive, small, lightweight, portable, and well crafted, they were ideal treaty port souvenirs. Miniatures portraying scenes of bucolic rural life, unrelenting toil, or grisly torture replicate scenes also widely circulated in treaty port art and in early photographs of China. As such, these miniatures can easily be interpreted as satisfying an Orientalist appetite for an exoticised China. While not incorrect, this interpretation is limited. In this chapter, Shi and Kendall restore some agency to the carvers themselves, first, in accounting for older woodcarving techniques that were creatively adapted to the production of free-standing miniatures and, second, in adapting images from a Chinese visual imaginary that predated the treaty ports.
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Notes
- 1.
Susan Stewart , On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the Collection (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993), p. 155.
- 2.
Rev. Charles E. Darwent, “Native Stores – Curios,” in Shanghai: A Handbook for Travellers and Residents (Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1911), p. xx.
- 3.
Cf. James Clifford, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London and New York: Routledge, 1992).
- 4.
Stewart , On Longing, p. 67.
- 5.
Dean MacCannell , The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Schocken Books, 1976), 148 and 159; and Stewart, On Longing, pp. 133, 139 and 150.
- 6.
Stewart , On Longing, pp. 138–139.
- 7.
James Hevia, “The Photography Complex: Exposing Boxer-Era China (1900–1901), Making Civilization,” in Photographies East: The Camera and Its Histories in East and Southeast Asia, ed. Rosalind C. Morris (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), p. 98.
- 8.
Edward C. Day, “Ningpo Wood Carvings,” International Studio 80 (1925): p. 311.
- 9.
Darwent , “Native Stores – Curios,” p. xx.
- 10.
Agnes E. Bowen, “Chinese Models,” Children’s Museum News: The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences VI, no. 5 (1919): p. 34.
- 11.
Day, “Ningpo Wood Carvings,” p. 314.
- 12.
We are particularly grateful to Master-craftsman Xu Yongshui for sharing knowledge and memories, and for answering our persistent questions. Thanks are also due to the several museum professionals who responded to our queries: Ira Jacknis and Linda Waterfield (Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California Berkeley), Sandra Vanderwarf and Allison Galland (Brooklyn Children’s Museum), Alexandra Green and Sushma Jansari (British Museum), Rebecca Andrews and Ashley Verplank (Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture), Cipperly Good (Penobscot Marine Museum), and Nancy Bruegeman (Museum of Anthropology, University of British Columbia). We are grateful to the following scholars in China and the United States who shared ideas and information with us: Dorothy Ko, Chai Xuanhua, William Ma, Qiu Yanping, Zhang Yaping and Zhou Yi; and to Xincheng Shen for the 2012 AMNH internship report. In the American Museum of Natural History, thanks to Research Library, Director Tom Baione; in the Division of Anthropology, to Archivist Kristen Mable, Technical Support Barry Landua, Staff Artist Kayla Younkin; and very special thanks to Curatorial Assistant Katherine Skaggs for her involvement in every aspect of this project, including the final manuscript preparation. Xu Yongshui, interviewed by Yuanxie Shi, June 2015; also see Annual Report 统计年报 of the Shanghai Import and Export Company of Crafts and Art (1963), stored at Shanghai Archive.
- 13.
Nelson H. H. Graburn, ed. Ethnic and Tourist Arts: Cultural Expressions from the Fourth World (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976) and “Ethnic and Tourist Arts Revisited,” in Unpacking Culture: Art and Commodity in Colonial and Postcolonial Worlds, eds. Ruth B. Phillips and Christopher B. Steiner (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999); Barbara A. Babcock, “Modeled Selves: Helen Cordero’s ‘Little People,’” in The Anthropology of Experience, eds. Victor W. Turner and Edward M. Bruner (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Ruth B. Phillips, and Christopher B. Steiner, eds. Unpacking Culture: Art and Commodity in Colonial and Postcolonial Worlds (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999); and others.
- 14.
Craig Clunas, Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China (Cambridge: Polity, 1991).
- 15.
James L. Hevia, English Lessons: The Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century China (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 122–123; Karl E. Meyer, and Shareen Blair Brysac, The China Collectors: America’s Century-Long Hunt for Asian Art Treasures (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015); Louise Tythacott, The Lives of Chinese Objects: Buddhism, Imperialism and Display (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2011), pp. 51–102.
- 16.
Craig Clunas, “Oriental Antiquities/Far Eastern Art,” in Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia, ed. Tani E. Barlow (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997); Steven Conn, “Where Is the East?: Asian Objects in American Museums, from Nathan Dunn to Charles Freer,” Winterthur Portfolio 35, no. 2/3 (2000): pp. 157–173; Hevia , English Lessons, pp. 132–133; Meyer and Brysac, The China Collectors.
- 17.
Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986), pp. 41–42, 68–69, 74; Yoshinobu Shiba, “Ningpo and Its Hinterland,” in The City in Late Imperial China, ed. G. William Skinner (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1977).
- 18.
See Peter Schran, “Editor’s Introduction to Forms of Business in the City of Ningpo in China [1909],” Chinese Sociology and Anthropology 15, no. 4 (1983): p. 8; Shiba, “Ningpo and Its Hinterland,” p. 402.
- 19.
See Bingchen Zhang 张炳晨, “Ningshi jiaju chutan (san)” ‘宁式’家具初探 (三), Jiaju 03 (1984): p. 30; Mei Chen 陈眉, “Qiantan Ningshi jiaju zhuangshi yishu fengge de xingcheng” 浅探宁式家具装饰艺术风格的形成, Ningbo jiaoyu xueyuan xuebao 8, no. 6 (2006); Shiba, “Ningpo and Its Hinterland,” pp. 410–411, 426; Nyok-Ching Tsur , “Forms of Business in the City of Ningpo in China [1909],” trans. Peter Schran, Chinese Sociology and Anthropology 15, no. 4 (1983): pp. 14–15, 75, 79.
- 20.
Nicholas Belfield Dennys, The Treaty Ports of China and Japan: A Complete Guide to the Open Ports of Those Countries, Together with Peking, Yedo, Hongkong and Macao (London and Hong Kong: Trubner and A. Shortrede, 1867), p. 341.
- 21.
Hevia , English Lessons, p. 136.
- 22.
Ibid., pp. 48, 136, 187.
- 23.
Hevia , English Lessons, p. 134; Meyer and Brysac, The China Collectors; Laurel Kendall, “‘China to the Anthropologist’: Franz Boas, Berthold Laufer, and a Road Not Taken in Early American Anthropology,” in Anthropologists and Their Traditions Across National Borders, Histories of Anthropology Annual 8, ed. Regna Darnell and Fredric W. Gleach (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014) and “A Most Singular and Solitary Expeditionist: Berthold Laufer Collecting China,” in The Anthropology of Expeditions: Travel, Visualities, Afterlives, eds. Joshua A. Bell and Erin L. Hasinoff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015).
- 24.
Karin Biermann, “Aufstellspielzeuge aus China: Kunstandwerkliche Miniatur-Holzschnitzerei des 19/20. Jahruhunderts im Hamburgischen Museum für Völkerkunde” [Standing toys from China: Artistic handicraft miniature wood-carving of the XIXth–XXth centuries in the Hamburg Museum for Ethnography], Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Völkerkunde in Hamburg 13 (1983).
- 25.
Tsur , “Forms of Business in the City of Ningpo in China [1909],” p. 80.
- 26.
Day, “Ningpo Wood Carvings,” p. 311.
- 27.
The Ninghai Bureau of Culture, Media and Publication website claims a 300-year history for wooden figure carving. A recent news report claimed one Shen Zhongze (沈中泽) as the first carver, but nothing more is known about him (see 宁海“白木小件”第四代传人——徐永水, Ningbo xinwen wang, accessed September 19, 2017, http://nh.cnnb.com.cn/system/2011/11/18/010176308.shtml; 宁海白木小件, Privacy & Terms, Baidu, last modified September 19, 2017, http://baike.baidu.com/view/3236653.html).
- 28.
Xu Yongshui, interviewed by Yuanxie Shi, March 6, 2016.
- 29.
Xu Yongshui, interviewed by Yuanxie Shi, June 2015. Also see 三寸木心——徐永水和他的白木小件, Dongnan shangbao, accessed September 19, 2017, http://daily.cnnb.com.cn/dnsb/html/2015-06/28/content_872130.htm?div=-1
- 30.
Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China, pp. 76–77; Tsur , “Forms of Business in the City of Ningpo in China [1909],” p. 15; Shiba, “Ningpo and Its Hinterland.”
- 31.
Day, “Ningpo Wood Carvings,” p. 314.
- 32.
《宁海老房子》之一——顾宅, Ninghai xinwen wang, accessed September 19, 2017, http://nh.cnnb.com.cn/system/2013/04/15/010553586.shtml
- 33.
Tsur , “Forms of Business in the City of Ningpo in China [1909].”
- 34.
Shiba, “Ningpo and Its Hinterland,” p. 211; Tsur , “Forms of Business in the City of Ningpo in China [1909],” pp. 64–68; Xu Yongshui interviewed by Yuanxie Shi, March 6, 2016.
- 35.
Craig Clunas, Chinese Furniture (Chicago: Art Media Resources, 1988), p. 33; Zhang, “Ningshi jiaju chutan (san),” p. 21. Also see AMNH collection 70/4700–4701, 70/4703–4705, 70/4707, 70/4708 for examples of jizi.
- 36.
Chinese white poplar (Populous tomentosa Carr), ginko (Ginko biloba) and white tea tree (Euonymus maackii), all native to the Ningbo region, are used to carve whitewood figurines. See Bianzuan weiyuanhui编纂委员会, ed., Ninghai xian wenhua zhi 宁海县文化志 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2014), pp. 233–234.
- 37.
Chen, “Qiantan Ningshi jiaju zhuangshi yishu fengge de xingcheng” 浅探宁式家具装饰艺术风格的形成, p. 53.
- 38.
Additional museums included: Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley (56 figurines); Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, University of Washington (49); Brooklyn Children’s Museum (13); Museum of Anthropology, University of British Columbia (11); Penobscot Marine Museum (5); and Peabody Essex Museum (1).
- 39.
Christian Henriot and Ivan Macaux, Scènes de la vie en Chine: Les figurines de bois de T’ou-Sè-Wè (Sainte-Marguerite-sur-Mer: Équateurs, 2014). But we were not able to survey the 144 pieces in the Hamburg Museum of Ethnology. Please see Karin Biermann, “Aufstellspielzeuge aus China: Kunstandwerkliche Miniatur-Holzschnitzerei des 19/20. Jahruhunderts im Hamburgischen Museum für Völkerkunde,” Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Völkerkunde in Hamburg 13 (1983). At the time of this writing, a few whitewood figurines were bobbing into view on eBay from anonymous estate sales and priced from under US$10 to over US$80, with the high end citing Henriot and Macaux’s 2014 publication.
- 40.
Henriot and Macaux , Scènes de la vie en Chine.
- 41.
Maurizia Boscagli, Stuff Theory: Everyday Objects, Radical Materialism (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), p. 185.
- 42.
Information on donors comes from the Division of Anthropology Archives of the American Museum of Natural History, Accessions 1900–31, 1902–4, 1910–4, 1932–26, 1950–1, 1969–29, 1983–26; Peabody Essex Museum Accessions 1910 E12953; Phoebe A. Hearst Museum Accessions 1326, 2076, 3845, 3921; Henriot and Macaux, Scènes de la vie en Chine; Frederick J. Heuser, Jr, “Presbyterian Women and the Missionary Call, 1870–1923,” American Presbyterians 73, no. 1 (1995): pp. 23–34; Kendall, “A Most Singular and Solitary Expeditionist: Berthold Laufer Collecting China,” pp. 60–90; Sandra Vanderwarf (Curator & Collections Manager at the Brooklyn Children’s Museum), email message to Shi, February 24, 2015; Sushma Jansari (Project Curator, Asian Ethnographic Collections at the British Museum), email message to Kendall, March 6, 2015; Nancy Bruegeman (Collection Manager at the Museum of Anthropology, UBC), email message to Shi, March 11, 2015; and Cipperly A. Good (Collections Manager/Curator at Penobscot Marine Museum), email message to Shi, March 16, 2015.
- 43.
Cipperly A. Good, email message to Shi, March 17, 2015.
- 44.
Heuser “Presbyterian Women and the Missionary Call, 1870–1923,” p. 26.
- 45.
Nancy Bruegeman, email message to Shi, March 11, 2015.
- 46.
Walter Hildburgh , Wellcome Collection, assessed September 19, 2017, http://content.yudu.com/web/1n6mc/0A1n6md/ReadingRoomCompanion/flash/resources/216.htm
- 47.
American Museum of Natural History, Division of Anthropology Archives, Accession 1969–29.
- 48.
American Museum of Natural History, Division of Anthropology Archives, Accession 1950–1, Mestres to Shapiro, January 9, 1950.
- 49.
George H. Kerr’s glass painting, now in the Burke Museum (5-13975) and probably collected during his stay in Taiwan in the 1940s, shows a beauty with a crossed leg posed beside a table on which rests a water pipe, but her pose is stiff, her clothing is tightly fastened, and her potentially erotic bound feet are decorously hidden.
- 50.
Anita Herle, “The Life-Histories of Objects: Collections of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to the Torres Strait,” in Cambridge and the Torres Strait: Centenary Essays on the 1898 Anthropological Expedition, eds. Anita Herle and Sandra Rouse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 87; Frances Larson, “The Things About Henry Wellcome,” Journal of Material Culture 15, no. 1 (2010): p. 93. Stewart, On Longing.
- 51.
“Laufer’s Guide to the Southwest Gallery (Chinese Hall),” American Museum of Natural History, accessed on September 19, 2017, http://anthro.amnh.org//anthropology/databases/archives/LauferGuide.cfm
- 52.
Day, “Ningpo Wood Carvings.”
- 53.
Agnes E. Bowen, “Chinese Models,” Children’s Museum News: The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences VI, no. 5 (1919): p. 35.
- 54.
American Museum of Natural History, Division of Anthropology Archives, Accession 1900–31; Erin L. Hasinoff, Faith in Objects: American Missionary Expositions in the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
- 55.
Isabella L. Bird, The Yangtze Valley and Beyond: An Account of Journeys in China, Chiefly in the Province of Sze Chuan and Among the Man-Tze of the Somo Territory (London: J. Murray, 1900; reprint, Boston: Beacon Press, 1985), p. 18.
- 56.
Bird , The Yangtze Valley and Beyond, pp. 29, 75.
- 57.
Ibid., pp. 18, 25.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Ibid., p. 198.
- 60.
Ibid., pp. 75–77.
- 61.
Henriot and Macaux , Scènes de la vie en Chine, fig. 157, 162.
- 62.
Ibid., facing figs. 142–144.
- 63.
See Helen F. Siu, ed., Furrows: Peasants, Intellectuals, and the State: Stories and Histories from Modern China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990).
- 64.
Rudolf P. Hommel, China at Work: An Illustrated Record of the Primitive Industries of China’s Masses, Whose Life Is Toil, and Thus an Account of Chinese Civilization (New York: John Day, 1937. Reprint, Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1969).
- 65.
Franklin Hiram King, Farmers of Forty Centuries; or, Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea, and Japan (1911. Reprint, Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1973).
- 66.
C. K. Yang, Religion in Chinese Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961), pp. 156–158; Arthur P. Wolf, “Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestors,” in Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974), pp. 133–145.
- 67.
See Hevia , “The Photography Complex: Exposing Boxer-Era China (1900–1901), Making Civilization,” pp. 79–120; Hommel, China at Work; L. Carrington Goodrich and Nigel Cameron, The Face of China: As Seen by Photographers and Travelers, 1860–1912 (New York: Aperture, 1978); King, Farmers of Forty Centuries; Hedda Morrison, A Photographer in Old Peking (Hong Kong, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1985) and Travels of a Photographer in Old China, 1933–1946 (Hong Kong, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Stephen White, John Thomson: A Window to the Orient (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1985); Clark Worswick and Jonathan D. Spence, Imperial China: Photographs 1850–1912 (New York: Penwick Publishing, 1978).
- 68.
Hevia , “The Photography Complex: Exposing Boxer-Era China (1900–1901), Making Civilization,” p. 98.
- 69.
Ifan Williams, Created in Canton: Chinese export watercolours on pith 广州制作:欧美藏十九世纪中国蓪纸画 (Guangzhou: Lingnan meishu chubanshe, 2014).
- 70.
At least one Song painting portrays a vendor. See Shijian Huang 黄时鉴, and William Sargent, eds. 360 professions in China: The collection of Peabody Essex Museum in U.S.A.中国三百六十行:美国皮博迪艾塞克斯博物馆藏品 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2006), p. 7; Jiaju Wang, Sanbailiushihang tu ji 三百六十行图集 (Suzhou: Guwuxuan chubanshe, 2002). Craftsmen with shoulder poles appear in the Ming period painting “Handicraftsmen under a great pine tree,” Smithsonian Institution, accessed September 19, 2017, http://collections.si.edu/search/results.htm?view=&dsort=&date.slider=&q=Landscape%3A+handicraftsmen+under+a+great+pine+tree
- 71.
Wang, Sanbailiushihang tu ji, 2002.
- 72.
Also known as Peiwen zhai gengzhi (佩文斋耕织). See Sören Edgren, Chinese Rare Books in American Collections (New York: China House Gallery, China Institute in America, 1984), p. 120.
- 73.
Edgren, Chinese Rare Books in American Collections, pp. 120–121.
- 74.
Ibid., pp. 122–123.
- 75.
Huang and Sargent, 360 professions in China; Marcia Reed and Paola Demattè, eds. China on Paper: European and Chinese Works from the Late Sixteenth to the Early Nineteenth Century (Los Angeles: Getty Institute for Research, 2007), pp. 6, 161–165; Marcia Reed, “A Perfume is Best from Afar: Publishing China for Europe,” in Reed and Demattè, eds. China on Paper, p. 22; Richard E. Strassberg, “War and Peace: Four Intercultural Landscapes,” in Reed and Demattè, China on Paper, pp. 89–96.
- 76.
Mo Zhang 张陌, “Yanhua zhong de sanbailiushi hang” 烟画中的三百六十行, Wenhua yuegan 12 (2014): pp. 104–107.
- 77.
Anne S. Goodrich, Chinese Hells: The Peking Temple of Eighteen Hells and Chinese Conceptions of Hell (St. Augustin: Monumenta Serica, 1981); Wolfram Eberhard, Guilt and Sin in Traditional China (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967). Also see AMNH collection 70/11584–11612, 11618, 11620, 11624, and 11628.
- 78.
Caroline Hirasawa, “The Inflatable, Collapsible Kingdom of Retribution: A Primer on Japanese Hell Imagery and Imagination,” Monumenta Nipponica 63, no. 1 (2008): pp. 12–13.
- 79.
Reed, “A Perfume Is Best from Afar: Publishing China for Europe,” p. 23; Reed and Demattè, China on Paper, pp. 163–165; Benjamin Schmidt, Inventing Exoticism: Geography, Globalism, and Europe’s Early Modern World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), pp. 210–255, 221–224, fig. 49.
- 80.
The mortar also appears in a hell painting in the AMNH collection (70/13330).
- 81.
Hevia , English Lessons and “The Photography Complex: Exposing Boxer-Era China (1900–1901), Making Civilization.”
- 82.
Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978); Schmidt, Inventing Exoticism.
- 83.
Bowen, “Chinese Models,” p. 34. Compare Hevia , English Lessons, p. 102. Bowen attributes the quote to a child viewing whitewood figurines in the Brooklyn Children’s Museum in 1919.
- 84.
Berthold Laufer, “Modern Chinese Collections in Historical Light,” The American Museum Journal XII, no. 4 (1912): p. 137.
- 85.
Stewart , On Longing, pp. 67–69.
- 86.
Jean Baudrillard, “The System of Collecting,” in The Cultures of Collecting, eds. John Elsner and Roger Cardinal (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 234.
- 87.
Timothy Mitchell, “The World as Exhibition,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 31 no. 2 (1989): p. 232.
- 88.
Jonathan Hay, Sensuous Surfaces: The Decorative Object in Early Modern China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2010), p. 171.
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Chinese characters | How it appears in the text | Pinyin | Wile-Giles |
|---|---|---|---|
宁波 | Ningbo/Ningpo | Ningbo | Ningpo |
白木小件 | baimu xiaojian | baimu xiaojian | paimu hsiaochien |
小白件 | xiao bai jian | xiao bai jian | hsiao pai chien |
徐永水 | Xu Yongshui | Xu Yongshui | Hsü Yungshui |
宁海县 | Ninghai Xian | Ninghai Xian | Ninghai Hsien |
上海 | Shanghai | Shanghai | Shanghai |
宁式家具 | Ning-shi jiaju | Ning-shi jiaju | Ning-shih chia chü |
吉子 | jizi | jizi | jitzu |
吉子板 | jiziban | jiziban | jitzuban |
拷头 | kaotou | kaotou | k’ao t’ou |
古田 | Gutian | Gutian | Kut’ien |
汉口 | Han kou | Han kou | Hank’ou |
广州 | Guangzhou | Guangzhou | Kuangchou |
林官 or 琳呱 | Lum -qua | Lin Guan/Lin Gua | Lin kuan |
御制耕织图 | Yuzhi gengzhi tu | Yuzhi gengzhi tu | Yüchih kêngchih t’u |
类书 | leishu | leishu | leishu |
授时图考 | Shou shi tu kao | Shou shi tu kao | Shou shih t’u k’ao |
善书 | shanshu | shanshu | shanshu |
大足石刻 | Dazu cave | Dazu shike | Tatsu shihk’o |
琉璃厂 | Liulichang | Liulichang | Liuli ch’ang |
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Shi, Y., Kendall, L. (2018). Who Miniaturises China? Treaty Port Souvenirs from Ningbo. In: Brunero, D., Villalta Puig, S. (eds) Life in Treaty Port China and Japan. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7368-7_9
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