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Treaty Ports and the Medical Geography of China: Imperial Maritime Customs Service Approaches to Climate and Disease

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Life in Treaty Port China and Japan

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Abstract

This chapter studies the treaty ports of China as a medical boundary. The medical officers of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service divided the treaty ports of China into three geographical regions: Northern China, Central China, and Southern China. The chapter selects reports on two treaty ports in each region (Newchwang and Chefoo, Shanghae and Wenchow, and Amoy and Foochow, respectively) to document the approaches of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service to climate and disease. It argues that the practices of British medicine in the treaty ports of China were more under the influence of imperialist ideology and its idea of geography than the objectivity of science would have allowed.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Mark Harrison, ‘“The Tender Frame of Man”: Disease, Climate and Racial Difference in India and the West Indies, 1760–1860’, in Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Volume 70, No. 1, 1996, pp. 68–96, see p. 70. See also Phillip D Curtin, ‘“The White Man’s Grave”: image and reality’, in Journal of British Studies, Vol. 1, 1961, pp. 94–110.

  2. 2.

    Warwick Anderson, ‘Disease, Race and Empire’, in Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Vol. 70, No. 1, 1996, pp. 62–67, see p. 63.

  3. 3.

    Alan Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease, The John Hopkins University Press, London, 1999, p. 34.

  4. 4.

    Richard Smith, John King Fairbank, Katherine Bruner, (Eds.) Robert Hart and China’s Early Modernization: His Journals, 1863–66, Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1991, Cambridge Massachusetts, p. 15.

  5. 5.

    Anderson, ‘Disease, Race and Empire’, p. 284.

  6. 6.

    Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease, p. 30.

  7. 7.

    Michael Worboys, ‘Tropical Diseases’, in (Eds.) W.F. Bynum and Roy Porter, Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, Routledge, London, 1993, pp. 512–536, see p. 515.

  8. 8.

    See Douglas Haynes, Imperial Medicine: Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2001. In particular, Chap. 5, ‘Domesticating Tropical Medicine: the Formulation of the London School of Tropical Hygiene’, pp. 125–151, outlines the politics of the establishment of the London School of Tropical Hygiene and, accordingly, the institutionalisation of tropical medicine as a discipline.

  9. 9.

    Bridie Andrews, The Making of Modern Chinese Medicine, 1850–1960, UBC Press, Vancouver, 2014, p. 216.

  10. 10.

    David Arnold , ‘Medicine and Colonialism’, in (Eds.) W.F. Bynum and Roy Porter, Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, Routledge, London, 1993, pp. 1393–1416, see p. 1396.

  11. 11.

    Philip D. Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe’s Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989, pp. 104–105.

  12. 12.

    Henry Thomas Buckle, Introduction to the History of Civilisation in England, Longmans, London, 1878.

  13. 13.

    David Arnold , ‘Medicine and Colonialism’, p. 1394.

  14. 14.

    David Arnold , ‘Introduction: Tropical Medicine Before Manson’, in (Ed.) David Arnold , Warm Climates and Western Medicine, Clio Medica, Amsterdam, 1996, pp. 1–19, see p. 6.

  15. 15.

    Anderson, ‘Disease, Race and Empire’, p. 64.

  16. 16.

    David N. Livingstone, ‘The Moral Discourse of Climate: Historical Considerations on Race, Place and Virtue’, in Journal of Historical Geography, Volume 17, No. 4, 1991, pp. 413–434, see p. 4.

  17. 17.

    Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease, see Chap. 1, ‘Romantic Medical Geography’, pp. 27–65.

  18. 18.

    Livingstone, ‘The Moral Discourse of Climate’, pp. 413–414, 421.

  19. 19.

    ‘Inspector General’s Circular No. 19 of 1870’, in Customs Gazette: Medical Reports for the Half-Year ended 31st March 1871, No. 1, pp. 4–5.

  20. 20.

    See, for example, ‘Dr W.W. Myer’s Report on the Health of Takow for the Two Years ended 31st March 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year ended 31st March 1881, No. 21, pp. 58–66, see p. 59.

  21. 21.

    Hans van de Ven, Breaking with the Past: the Maritime Customs Service and the Global Origins of Modernity in China, Columbia University Press, New York, 2014, pp. 75–82.

  22. 22.

    David N. Livingstone, ‘Human Acclimatisation: Perspectives on a Contested Field of Inquiry in Science, Medicine and Geography’, in History of Science: A Review of Literature and Research in the History of Science, Medicine and Technology in Its Intellectual and Social Context, Vol. 25, 1987, Part 40, No. 70, December 1987, pp. 359–394, see p. 365.

  23. 23.

    David Arnold , Colonising the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth Century India University of California Press, London, 1993, pp. 23–28.

  24. 24.

    Arnold , Colonising the Body, pp. 28–29.

  25. 25.

    Shang-Jen Li, British Imperial Medicine in Late Nineteenth Century China and the Early Career of Patrick Manson, PhD thesis, Imperial College, London, 1999, p. 40.

  26. 26.

    ‘The Drs Manson’s Report on the Health of Amoy for the Half-year Ended 30th September 1873’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 30th September 1873, No. 6, pp. 20–32, see p. 30.

  27. 27.

    ‘The Drs Manson’s Report on the Health of Amoy for the Half-year Ended 30th September 1873’, p. 32.

  28. 28.

    ‘The Drs Manson’s Report on the Health of Amoy for the Half-year Ended 30th September 1873’, p. 30.

  29. 29.

    ‘The Drs Manson’s Report on the Health of Amoy for the Half-year Ended 30th September 1873’, p. 32.

  30. 30.

    ‘The Drs Manson’s Report on the Health of Amoy for the Half-year Ended 30th September 1873’, p. 32.

  31. 31.

    Stephanie Villalta Puig, ‘James Henderson’s Shanghai Hygiene and the British Constitution in Early Modern China’, in (Ed.) H. Choy, Discourses of Disease in Modern China, Brill, 2016, pp. 19–54, see p. 20.

  32. 32.

    James Hevia , English Lessons: the Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth Century China, Duke University Press, London, 2003, p. 180.

  33. 33.

    Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: the Foreign Presence in the Treaty Port Era, 1840–1943, Hong Kong University Press, 2015, p. 167.

  34. 34.

    ‘Dr James Watson’s Report on the Health of Newchwang for the Half-year ended 30th September 1871’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 31st March 1871, No. 3, pp. 10–15, see p. 10.

  35. 35.

    ‘Dr James Watson’s Report on the Health of Newchwang for the Half-year ended 30th September 1871’, p. 15.

  36. 36.

    ‘Dr James Watson’s Report on the Health of Newchwang for the two Years ended 30th September 1876’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 30th September1876, No. 12, pp. 28–35, see p. 28.

  37. 37.

    ‘Dr James Watson’s Report on the Health of Newchwang for the two Years ended 30th September 1876’, p. 28.

  38. 38.

    Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: the Foreign Presence in the Treaty Port Era, 1840–1943, Hong Kong University Press, 2015, pp. 52–54.

  39. 39.

    ‘Dr J.G. Brereton’s Report on the Health of Chefoo for the Half-year ended 31st March 1880’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year ended 31st March 1880, No. 19, pp. 31–32, see p. 31.

  40. 40.

    ‘Dr J.G. Brereton’s Report on the Health of Chefoo for the Half-year ended 31st March 1880’, p. 31.

  41. 41.

    ‘Dr J.G. Brereton’s Report on the Health of Chefoo for the Half-year ended 31st March 1880’, p. 31.

  42. 42.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of Chefoo’, in Medical Reports for the Half year ended 31st March 1872, No. 3, pp. 37–42, see p. 37.

  43. 43.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of Chefoo’, p. 37.

  44. 44.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of Chefoo’, p. 37.

  45. 45.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of Chefoo’, p. 37.

  46. 46.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of Chefoo’, p. 37.

  47. 47.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of Chefoo’, p. 40.

  48. 48.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Sanitary Condition of Chefoo’, p. 42.

  49. 49.

    ‘Dr J.R. Carmichael’s Report on the Health of Chefoo for the Year ended 30th September 1876’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 30th September 1876, No. 12, pp. 41–47, see p. 41.

  50. 50.

    ‘Dr J.R. Carmichael’s Report on the Health of Chefoo for the Year ended 30th September 1876’, p. 47.

  51. 51.

    ‘Dr W.A. Henderson’s Report on the Health of Ningpo for the Eighteen Months ended 30th September 1880’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year ended 30th September 1880, No. 20, pp. 27–31, see p. 27.

  52. 52.

    ‘Dr W.A. Henderson’s Report on the Health of Ningpo for the Eighteen Months ended 30th September 1880’, p. 27.

  53. 53.

    ‘Dr W.A. Henderson’s Report on the Health of Ningpo for the Eighteen Months ended 30th September 1880’, p. 27.

  54. 54.

    ‘Dr W.A. Henderson’s Report on the Health of Ningpo for the Eighteen Months ended 30th September 1880’, pp. 28–29.

  55. 55.

    ‘Dr W.A. Henderson’s Report on the Health of Ningpo for the Eighteen Months ended 30th September 1880’, p. 29.

  56. 56.

    ‘Dr Alexander Jamieson’s Report on the Health of Shanghai for the half year ended 31st March 1873’, in Medical Reports for January to March 1873, No. 5, pp. 50–58, see p. 50.

  57. 57.

    See, for example, ‘Dr Alexander Jamieson’s Report on the Health of Shanghai for the half year ended 31st March 1874’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 31st March 1874, No. 7, pp. 33–44, see p. 33.

  58. 58.

    ‘Dr Alexander Jamieson’s Report on the Health of Shanghai for the half year ended 31st March 1873’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 31st March 1873, No. 5, pp. 50–58, see p. 54.

  59. 59.

    ‘Dr Alexander Jamieson’s Report on the Health of Shanghai for the half year ended 31st March 1873’, p. 54.

  60. 60.

    ‘Dr Alexander Jamieson’s Report on the Health of Shanghai for the half year ended 31st March 1873’, p. 54.

  61. 61.

    ‘Dr Alexander Jamieson’s Report on the Health of Shanghai for the half year ended 31st March 1874’, p. 34.

  62. 62.

    ‘Dr Alexander Jamieson’s Report on the Health of Shanghai for the half year ended 31st March 1874’, p. 43.

  63. 63.

    ‘Dr MacKenzie’s Report on the Health of Ningpo for the Year ended 31st March 1877’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year ended 31st March 1877, No. 13, pp. 46–47, see p. 46.

  64. 64.

    ‘Dr E.P. McFarlane’s Report on the Health of Ichang’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 30th September 1880, pp. 18–21, see p. 18.

  65. 65.

    ‘Dr E.P. McFarlane’s Report on the Health of Ichang’, p. 19.

  66. 66.

    ‘Dr E.P. McFarlane’s Report on the Health of Ichang’, p. 19.

  67. 67.

    ‘Dr A. Henry’s Report on the Health of Ichang for the Half-year ended 30th September 1884’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year ended 30th September 1884, No. 28, pp. 3–4, see p. 3.

  68. 68.

    ‘Dr C Begg’s Report on the Health of Hankow for the Half-year ended 31st March 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year ended 31st March 1881, No. 21, pp. 44–47, see p. 44.

  69. 69.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Health of Takow and Taiwan-fu (Anping) for the Year ended 31st March 1882’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 31st March 1882, No. 23, pp. 18–29, see pp. 18–20. Indeed, Dr Myers shows much surprise at this fact.

  70. 70.

    ‘Drs Müller and Manson’s Report on the Health of Amoy for the Half-year ended 31st March 1872’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year ended 31st March 1872, No. 3, pp. 22–33, see p. 22.

  71. 71.

    ‘Drs Muller and Manson’s Report on the Health of Amoy for the Half-year ended 31st March 1872’, pp. 22–23.

  72. 72.

    Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: the Foreign Presence in the Treaty Port Era, 1840–1943, Hong Kong University Press, 2015, p. 86.

  73. 73.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year ended 31st March 1881, No. 21, pp. 50–56, see p. 51.

  74. 74.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 51.

  75. 75.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 51.

  76. 76.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 51.

  77. 77.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 52.

  78. 78.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 52.

  79. 79.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 52.

  80. 80.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 52.

  81. 81.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 52.

  82. 82.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 52.

  83. 83.

    ‘Dr T. Rennie’s Report on the Health of Foochow for the Year ended 31st March 1881’, p. 52.

  84. 84.

    Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: the Foreign Presence in the Treaty Port Era, 1840–1943, Hong Kong University Press, 2015, p. 137.

  85. 85.

    ‘Dr J. Jardine’s Report on the Health of Kiukiang for the Year ended 31st March 1877’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 31st March 1877, No. 13, pp. 3–6, see p. 3.

  86. 86.

    ‘Dr J. Jardine’s Report on the Health of Kiukiang for the Year ended 31st March 1877’, p. 2.

  87. 87.

    ‘Dr J. Jardine’s Report on the Health of Kiukiang for the Year ended 31st March 1877’, p. 2.

  88. 88.

    ‘Notes on Tinea Imbricata, an Undescribed Species of Body Ringworm’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 30th September 1878, No. 20, pp. 1–11, see p. 10.

  89. 89.

    ‘Dr A.S. Deane’s Report on the Health of Wuhu for the Half-year ended 30th September 1880’, in Medical Reports for the Half Year Ended 30th September 1875, No. 20, pp. 22–23, see p. 22.

  90. 90.

    ‘Dr A.S. Deane’s Report on the Health of Wuhu for the Half-year ended 30th September 1880’, p. 22.

  91. 91.

    ‘Dr A.S. Deane’s Report on the Health of Wuhu for the Half-year ended 30th September 1880’, p. 22.

  92. 92.

    ‘Dr A.S. Deane’s Report on the Health of Wuhu for the Half-year ended 30th September 1880’, pp. 22–23.

  93. 93.

    Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: the Foreign Presence in the Treaty Port Era, 1840–1943, Hong Kong University Press, 2015, p. 271.

  94. 94.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 30th September 1881, No. 22, pp. 14–50, see p. 14.

  95. 95.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 14.

  96. 96.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 14.

  97. 97.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 14.

  98. 98.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, pp. 14–15.

  99. 99.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 15.

  100. 100.

    ‘Dr D.J. MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow, in for the Half-year ended 31st March 1884’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 31st March 1884, No. pp. 9–18, see p. 9.

  101. 101.

    ‘Dr D.J. MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow, in for the Half-year ended 31st March 1884’, p. 9.

  102. 102.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year Ended 30th September 1881, pp. 14–50, see p. 30.

  103. 103.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 22.

  104. 104.

    Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, 1981, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1981.

  105. 105.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 22.

  106. 106.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 22.

  107. 107.

    ‘Dr MacGowan’s Report on the Health of Wenchow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, p. 22.

  108. 108.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Health of Takow for the Two Years ended 31st March 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 31st March 1881, No. 21, pp. 58–70, see p. 59.

  109. 109.

    ‘Dr W.W. Myers’s Report on the Health of Takow for the Two Years ended 31st March 1881’, p. 59.

  110. 110.

    ‘Dr E.A. Aldridge’s Report on the Health of Hoihow for the Half-year ended 31st March 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 31st March 1881, No. 21, pp. 73–77, see p. 74.

  111. 111.

    ‘Dr E.A. Aldridge’s Report on the Health of Hoihow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1881’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 30th September1881, No. 22, pp. 6–10, see p. 6.

  112. 112.

    ‘Dr E.A. Aldridge’s Report on the Health of Hoihow for the Year ended 31st March 1883’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 31st March 1883, No. 25, pp. 10–17, see p. 11.

  113. 113.

    Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: the Foreign Presence in the Treaty Port Era, 1840–1943, Hong Kong University Press, 2015, p. 220.

  114. 114.

    ‘Dr E.I. Scott’s Report on the Health of Swatow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1876’, in Medical Reports for the Half-year Ended 30th September 1876, No. 12, pp. 18–28, see p. 19.

  115. 115.

    ‘Dr E.I. Scott’s Report on the Health of Swatow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1876’, p. 19.

  116. 116.

    ‘Dr E.I. Scott’s Report on the Health of Swatow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1876’, p. 19.

  117. 117.

    ‘Dr E.I. Scott’s Report on the Health of Swatow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1876’, p. 19.

  118. 118.

    ‘Dr E.I. Scott’s Report on the Health of Swatow for the Half-year ended 30th September 1876’, p. 19.

  119. 119.

    ‘Dr F. Carrow’s Report on the Health of Canton for the Eight Months Ended 31st March 1882’, in Medical Reports for the Half-Year Ended 31st March 1882, No. 23, pp. 33–34, see p. 33.

  120. 120.

    Ruth Rogaski , Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty Port China, University of California Press: London, 2004, p. 106.

  121. 121.

    Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government, Polity Press, Oxford, 1994, see ‘Introduction’.

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    1. The University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull, UK

      Stephanie Villalta Puig

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    1. Stephanie Villalta Puig
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    1. National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

      Donna Brunero

    2. The University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull, United Kingdom

      Stephanie Villalta Puig

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    Villalta Puig, S. (2018). Treaty Ports and the Medical Geography of China: Imperial Maritime Customs Service Approaches to Climate and Disease. In: Brunero, D., Villalta Puig, S. (eds) Life in Treaty Port China and Japan. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7368-7_5

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