New-Caseload Hutu Refugees’ Flight and Their Refusal to Return (1994–1997)

Yonekawa, Masako

doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6756-3_3

Masako Yonekawa²

299 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter aims to clarify why such a large number of 1994 new-caseload refugees, mainly Hutu, fled during and in the aftermath of the genocide as well as what happened to these refugees, especially those in eastern DRC, after the destruction of refugee camps in 1996.

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Notes

1.
The source of this number is the Rwandan Government although this number has been contested. The New Humanitarian, “Census finds 937,000 died in genocide”, 2 April 2004; S. Straus, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda, New York, Cornell University Press, 2008, 51.
2.
Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis, 312, 364.
3.
Ibid, 313.
4.
Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story, 145.
5.
Ibid.
6.
Affidavit of Michael Andrew Hourigan, 8 March 2007, para 7.4. Regarding the direct witness of the plane crash, see J-M Herbaut, N. Poux, “Réquisitoire Definitif Aux Fins de Non-Lieu”, 11 Oct 2018, 54–65.
7.
Affidavit of Hourigan, para. 10, 11, 22.
8.
T. Cruvellier, translated by C. Voss, Court of Remorse: Inside the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Wisconsin, the University of Wisconsin Press, 2010, 156.
9.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 180.
10.
Ibid, 182.
11.
The Guardian, “French judge accuses Rwandan president of assassination”, 22 Nov. 2006.
12.
Survie, La Complicité de la France dans le génocide des Tutsi au Rwanda: 15 ans après, 15 questions pour comprendre, Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009, 90.
13.
Le Monde, “Rose, le joker de Kigali”, 5 May 2009.
14.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 184–185.
15.
Radio France International (RFI), “France: enquête relancée sur l'attentat contre le président rwandais Habyarimana”, 7 Oct. 2016.
16.
L’Express, “Rwanda: non-lieu dans l’enquête sur l’attentat déclencheur du génocide de 1994”, 26 Dec. 2018.
17.
RFI, “Affaire Habyarimana: l’enquête définitivement bouclée en France”, 21 Dec. 2017.
18.
RFI, “Affaire Habyarimana: non-lieu en France pour sept proches de Kagame”, 26 Dec. 2018.
19.
L’ Opinion, “Rwanda: entre Paul Kagamé et la France, l’impossible réconciliation?”, 13 Nov. 2017.
20.
Republic of Rwanda, Mucyo report: The role of France in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, Aug. 2008, 6.
21.
Republic of Rwanda, “Committee of Experts Investigation of the April 6, 1994 Crash of President Habyarimana’s Dassault Falcon--50 Aircraft: Media Guide”, Jan. 2010, 2.
22.
Cunningham Levy Muse LLP, Report and Recommendation to the Government of Rwanda on the Role of French Officials in the Genocide Against the Tutsi, 11 Dec. 2017, 3.
23.
Barbara Mulvaney, http://www.cunninghamlevy.com/attorneys/barbara-mulvaney/.
24.
RFI, “Key witness in Kabuye trial retracts testimony”, 20 Nov. 2008, http://www1.rfi.fr/actuen/articles/107/article_2190.asp. For more detail, see C. Vidal, “Les Contradictions d’ un Lieutenant Rwandais Abdul Ruzibiza, Témoin, Acteur, Faux-Témoin”, S. Marysse, F. Reyntjens et S. Vandeginste (eds.), L’Afrique des Grands Lacs Annuaire 2008–2009, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2009, 43–55.
25.
Le Monde, “Rose, le joker de Kigali”.
26.
Jeune Afrique, “Questions autor de la mort de Joshua Abdul Ruzibiza”, 24 Sep. 2010, https://www.jeuneafrique.com/184337/politique/questions-autour-de-la-mort-de-joshua-abdul-ruzibiza/.
27.
Libération, “Un témoin rwandais récuse le juge Bruguière”, 4 Dec. 2006.
28.
Guichaoua, From War to Genocide, 31; Ruzibiza, Rwanda l'histoire secrete, 168.
29.
H. C Epstein, Another Fine Mess: America, Uganda, and the War on Terror, New York: Columbia Global Reports, 2017, 111.
30.
The Globe and Mail, “Probe revisits mystery of assassination that triggered Rwandan genocide”, 11 Oct. 2016, https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/probe-revisits-mystery-of-assassination-that-triggered-rwandan-genocide/article32316139/.
31.
Interview with refugees A, D, E, F, I, K, P, Q, U, W, Z, AA, HH, KK, OO, RR, AAA, and BBB.
32.
S. Straus, “How many perpetrators were there in the Rwandan genocide? An Estimate”, Journal of Genocide Research, 6(1), 2004, 87.
33.
Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil, 231; Ruzibiza, Rwanda l'histoire secrete, 252.
34.
Guichaoua, From War to Genocide, 214.
35.
S. Straus, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda, Itacha, Cornell University Press, 2006, 50.
36.
Libération, “Kigali livré à la fureur des tueurs hutus”, 11 Apr. 1994.
37.
S. Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide, New York: Harper Perennial, 2002, 357.
38.
Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil, 333.
39.
UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in Rwanda, S/1994/640, 31 May 1994, para. 36.
40.
Straus, The Order of genocide, 27, 96.
41.
Ibid, 232.
42.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 106.
43.
L. Reydams, “NGO Justice: African Rights as Pseudo-Prosecutor of the Rwandan Genocide”, Human Rights Quarterly, 38 (3), 2016, 549.
44.
African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance, African Rights, 1994, 1084–1086.
45.
Reydams, “NGO Justice”, 547, 576.
46.
UNAMIR military observers’ information according to Luc Marchal, the then Belgian Contingent Commander and Kigali Sector Commander with UNAMIR. He said that such large-scale offensive of the RPF, which “would have required weeks of preparation”, was able to be implemented as a consequence of the strategy with enough ammunition and other supplies, already brought in from Uganda prior to the shooting down. This shipment from the NRA to the RPF was confirmed in February 1994 by the UN peacekeeping operations, established on the Ugandan side of the border. Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil, 201; Rever, In Praise of Blood, 62; Marchal’s email on 30 Jul. 2018.
47.
Marchal’s email on 29 Jul. 2018.
48.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 182.
49.
ICTR top secret summary report, 25, cited in Rever, In Praise of Blood, 68, 255n; Rever’s email, 8 Aug. 2018.
50.
ICTR’s Top Secret Report, date unknown.
51.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 60.
52.
UN Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/1995/7, 28 Jun. 1994, 11–12.
53.
A. Ruzibiza’s statement to Judge Bruguière. C. Onana Les secrets de la justice internationale: Enquêtes truquées sur le génocide rwandais, Paris, Editions Duboiris, 2005, 118; Rever, In Praise of Blood, 70.
54.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 107.
55.
Amnesty, Rwanda: Reports of killings and abductions by the Rwandese Patriotic Army, April-August 1994, 19 Oct. 1994, 2.
56.
Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil, 338; Onana, Les secrets de la justice internationale, 56.
57.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 114.
58.
Ibid, 62.
59.
Ibid.
60.
A. Tashobya, “Photos & Videos: RPA’s ‘600’ honoured for bravery during Genocide”, The New Times, 14 Dec. 2017, https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/225597.
61.
Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil, 295, 338.
62.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 108; ICTR’s Special Investigations Unit summary document.
63.
W. Madsen, Genocide and covert operations in Africa, 1993-1999, New York, Edwin Mellen Press, 1999, 132.
64.
UNSC, S/RES/912, 21 April 1994. Before the departure of Belgian troops, there were 2486. At the end, 540 remained. Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story, 482.
65.
Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story, 23.
66.
Ibid.
67.
RPF, “Statement by the Political Bureau of the Rwandan Patriotic Front on the Proposed Deployment of a U.N. Intervention Force in Rwanda”, 30 Apr. 1994.
68.
Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story, 23.
69.
Ibid, 23–24.
70.
Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil, 342.
71.
Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story, 23. Rudasingwa, Healing A Nation, 155.
72.
UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Assistance Mission to Rwanda, S/1995/457, 4 June 1995, para 7–8.
73.
UNHCR, Refugees Magazine, Issue 110, “Crisis in the Great Lakes”, 1 Dec. 1997.
74.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 75, 84; UNHCR Ngara (Western Tanzania), Situation Report, 17 May 1994, 1.
75.
UNHCR Ngara, 1; Amnesty, Rwanda: Reports of killing and abductions, 7.
76.
UN, S/RES/929 (1994), 22 Jun. 1994, para. 1.
77.
See the map and animation at GenoDynamics, https://genodynamics.weebly.com/data-animations.html.
78.
J-H Bradol and M. Le Pape, Humanitarian aid, genocide and mass killings: Médecins Sans Frontières, the Rwandan experience, 1982–97, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2017, 42; P. Péan, Noires fureurs, blancs menteurs, 457.
79.
MSF Speaking Out, The Violence of the New Rwandan Regime 1994–1995, 2013, 19–21.
80.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 229.
81.
G. Prunier, “Éléments pour une histoire du Front patriote rwandais”, Politique africaine, 51, Oct. 1993, 126.
82.
Des Forges, “Land in Rwanda”, 358.
83.
Ibid.
84.
Ibid, 358–359.
85.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 229.
86.
C. Andre and J.-P. Platteau, “Land Tenure under Unendurable Stress: Rwanda Caught in the Malthusian Trap”, Facultés Universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix, January 1996, 35. The same authors added that “It is not rare, even today, to hear Rwandans :ague (sic) that a war is necessary to wipe out an excess of population and to bring numbers into line with the available land resources”, fn 29.
87.
Reyntjens, Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda, 96.
88.
Guichaoua, From War to Genocide, xIviii.
89.
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees: A Humanitarian Agenda, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997, 32.
90.
Republic of Rwanda, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, “Rwanda’s Comments on the Draft UN Mapping Report on the DRC”, 30 Sep. 2010, para. 10.
91.
Onana, Rwanda l’Opération Turquoise, 512.
92.
UNSC, S/1994/1115, “Letter dated 28 September 1994 from the Permanent Representative of Rwanda to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council”, 29 Sep. 1994, 2.
93.
Rudasingwa, Healing a Nation, 176.
94.
G. Prunier, Africa’s World War, 4.
95.
Ibid, 7.
96.
Interview with refugees Q and S.
97.
Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis, 311.
98.
UNSC, Second Report of the Secretary-General on Security in the Rwandese Refugee Camps, S/1995/65 25 Jan. 1995, para. 14.
99.
Prunier, Africa’s World War, 25.
100.
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action, 252.
101.
R. Winter, “Lancing the Boil: Rwanda’s Agenda in Zaire”, H. Adelman and G. C. Rao (eds.), War and Peace in Zaire/Congo: Analyzing and Evaluating Intervention, 1996–1997, Trenton, Africa World Press, Inc., 2004, 114.
102.
H. Adelman and G. C. Rao, “The DRC War and Refugee Crisis, 1996–1997: Creating a Culture of Conflict Prevention”, Adelman and Rao (eds)., War and Peace in DRC/Congo, 19.
103.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 89.
104.
UN Commission on Human Rights, “Report on the situation of human rights in Rwanda submitted by Mr. René Degni-Ségui, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights”, Jan. 1996, para. 110–115, 138.
105.
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action, 258; Rwanda, “Rwanda’s Comments on the Draft UN Mapping Report”, para. 25.
106.
UNSC, S/1994/1115, 3.
107.
Rwanda, “Rwanda’s Comments on the Draft UN Mapping Report”, para. 22.
108.
P. Hammond, Framing post-Cold War conflicts: The media and international intervention, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007, 92.
109.
Interview with refugees P. R, U and BB.
110.
Gersony team did not have mandate to conduct an inquiry into the massacres by the ex-FAR and militias. UNHCR, “Prospects for Early Repatriation of Rwandan Refugees Currently in Burundi, Tanzania and DRC” (hereafter, Gersony report), Oct. 1994, 3, 14.
111.
Ibid, 1.
112.
African Rights, Rwanda, 1091.
113.
Rwandan government, “Statement on the Question of Refugees and Security in Rwanda”, 25 Sep. 1994, 5.
114.
Amnesty, Rwanda: Reports of killings and abductions by the Rwandese Patriotic Army, 1. Amnesty also acknowledged that massacres were committed by FAR as well.
115.
F. Mitterand, “Discours de Monsieur François Mitterand” , Biarritz, 8 Nov. 1994, 4.
116.
Ruzibiza, Rwanda. L’histoire secrète, 328–336.
117.
J-P Godding, Réfugiés Rwandais au Zaïre: sommes-nous encore des hommes? documents des groupes de réflexion dans les camps, Paris, L’Harmattan, 1997, 82–83.
118.
Interview with refugees K, M and P.
119.
Godding, Réfugiés Rwandais au Zaïre, 83.
120.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 121; G. Musabyimana, L’APR et les réfugiés rwandais au Zaïre 1996–1997: Un génocide nié, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2004, 17.
121.
Musabyimana, L'APR et les réfugiés rwandais, 17.
122.
Ibid.
123.
Email from Rudasingwa on 12 Dec. 2017.
124.
Interview with refugees P, R, U, BB, and CC.
125.
Ibid.
126.
Interview with refugees P, U, BB, and ex-Congolese government official.
127.
Interview with refugees P, U and BB.
128.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 221.
129.
Watson, “War and Waiting”, 55.
130.
Confirmed by former RPF officials. Email from Rever, 15 Sep. 2017; this infiltration and use of Congolese were also confirmed by refugees and a former Congolese military official.
131.
Interview with refugees P, Q, U, and BB. The presence of these RPF spies was confirmed by ex-RPF officer interviewed although he does not recognise the violence and crimes committed by them.
132.
I. Martin, “Hard Choices after Genocide: Human Rights and Political Failures in Rwanda”, J. Moore ed., Hard Choices: Moral Dilemmas in Humanitarian Intervention, Maryland, Rowman & Littlefield, 1998, 160.
133.
Confirmed by one former RPF officer.
134.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 142, 221.
135.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 93.
136.
Ibid.
137.
Ibid, 94.
138.
Ibid, 95.
139.
Ibid.
140.
Prunier, Africa’s World War, 38.
141.
Ibid.
142.
S. T. E. Kleine-Ahlbrandt, “The Kibeho crisis: towards a more effective system of international protection for IDPs”, Forced Migration Review, Aug. 1998, 8.
143.
Ibid.
144.
Prunier, Africa’s World War, 38.
145.
Kleine-Ahlbrandt, “The Kibeho crisis”, 8.
146.
Ibid, 8–9.
147.
Prunier, Africa’s World War, 39.
148.
Ibid, 40.
149.
Ibid.
150.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 220.
151.
T. Pickard, Combat Medic: An Australian’s Eyewitnesses Account of the Kibeho Account, Wavell Heights, Big Sky Publishing, 2008, 72–79.
152.
Ministère de la Réhabilitation et de l’Intégration Sociale, “Closure of Displaced People’s Camps in Gikongoro”, 25 Apr. 1995.
153.
The number could have been as many as 10,000. Pickard, Combat Medic, 81; Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ‘Twenty years since Kibeho massacre in Rwanda’, 22 Apr. 2015.
154.
Interview with a refugee P.
155.
Pickard, Combat Medics, 74.
156.
UN, Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda Submitted by Mr. René Degni-Séqui, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/1996/7, 28 Jun. 1995, para. 130.
157.
MSF, “Deadlock in the Rwandan Refugee Crisis: Virtual Standstill on Repatriation”, Jul. 1995, 19.
158.
Amnesty, Rwanda and Burundi. The return home: rumours and realities, 20 Feb. 1996.
159.
M. Ruhimbika, Les Banyamulenge (Congo-Zaïre) entre deux guerre, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2001, 55.
160.
It literally means “the people of Mulenge” in Swahili. It is not an ethnic group, but instead refers to the Rwandan Tutsi who lives in South Kivu. Its name was likely adopted in the 1960s by earlier Tutsi settlers to distinguish themselves from more recent refugees from Burundi and Rwanda.
161.
F Reyntjens, The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009, 48.
162.
Testimony of Major R. Higiro, former RPF officer, who oversaw some of this training at Gako. Email from Rever, 5 March 2019.
163.
Rwanda, “Rwanda’s Comments on the Draft UN Mapping Report”, para. 19, 20.
164.
Ibid, para. 12, 19.
165.
UNSC, S/PV.3504, 27 Feb. 1995, 4-5; UNSC, S/PV.3605, 12 Dec. 1995, 14.
166.
Ibid.
167.
Ibid.
168.
J. Pomfret, “Rwanda Led Revolt in Congo; Defence Minister Says Arms, Troops Supplied For Anti-Mobutu Drive”, Washington Post, 9 Jul. 1997.
169.
OHCHR, Mapping Report, para. 220.
170.
Rwanda, “Rwanda’s Comments on the Draft UN Mapping Report, para. 13.
171.
Ibid, para. 24.
172.
F. Ngolet, Crisis in the Congo: The Rise and Fall of Laurent Kabila, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, 4.
173.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 120.
174.
Ibid, 93. Interview with a refugee O.
175.
Libération, Zaïre: dans la forêt des Virunga, des charniers et des réfugiés moribonds “Ce n'est rien, je ne suis plus vivant”, 7 Dec. 1996.
176.
Ibid.
177.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 121.
178.
“The Testimony of Lt. Aloys Ruyenzi”, 12. HRW, Democratic Republic of the Congo: What Kabila is Hiding, Civilian Killings and Impunity in Congo (hereafter, What Kabila is Hiding), 9 (5) (A), Oct. 1997, 16.
179.
HRW, What Kabila is Hiding, 35; J. Pomfret, “Massacres were a Weapon in Congo’s Civil War”, Washington Post, 11 Jun. 1997.
180.
S. Smith, “Des morts sans nombre dans l’ombre de Kabila: 190,000 personnes sont portées disparues, estime Médecins sans frontières”, Libération, 20 May 1997.
181.
R. Block, “Congo Villagers Describe Horrific Killings of Refugees—Kabila Denies Massacre of Rwandans, But Citizens and Aides Say Otherwise”, The Wall Street Journal, 6 Jun. 1997.
182.
UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General’s Investigative Team, in the DRC, Letter dated 29 June 1998 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, S/1998/581, 29 Jun. 1998, 7.
183.
OHCHR, Mapping Report, para. 7.
184.
UN General Assembly, Report of the joint mission charged with investigating allegations of massacres and other human rights violations occurring in eastern Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) since September, 1996A/51/942, 2 Jul. 1997, para. 77.
185.
OHCHR, Mapping Report, para. 31.
186.
E. Kisangani, “The Massacres of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law”, Journal of Modern African Studies, 38(2), 2000, 173–179; MSF’s estimation of death toll was 220,000. J.-H. Bradol and A. Guibert (Médecins Sans Frontières), “Le temps des assassins et l’espace humanitaire, Rwanda, Kivu, 1994–1997”, Hérodote 86/87, 1997, 148.
187.
Interview with refugees K, U, Z, AA, BB, and CC.
188.
Interview with refugee U and Z. According to a former Congolese army officer, some arms brought by ex-FAR and Interahamwe upon their arrival in eastern DRC in 1994 were disarmed at the border, but Congolese troops sold them back to ex-FAR.
189.
H. Adelman and L. J. Baxter, “The Multinational Force for Eastern Zaire: The Conception Planning and Termination of OP Assurance”, Adelman and Rao (eds.), War and Peace in Zaire/Congo, 266.
190.
Le Monde, “La situation des réfugiés rwandais Entre la peur du choléra et celle du FPR: Le HCR encourage les réfugiés à rentrer au Rwanda, mais le mouvement de retour n'a pas encore commence”, 24 Jul. 1994.
191.
S. Ogata, The Turbulent Decade: Confronting the Refugee Crises of the 1990s, New York, Norton, 2005, 189.
192.
Le Libre Belgique, “Une solution politique, seule issue au désastre humanitaire annoncé”‚ 18 July 1994.
193.
Prunier, Africa’s World War, 34.
194.
Ogata, The Turbulent Decade, 195.
195.
Gersony report was leaked online in 2010.
196.
UNAMIR, “A Strategic Plan for the Partial Relocation of Rwanda of Rondaval”, 28 June 1994, para. 6.
197.
Interview with a former NGO worker in the Great Lakes region who had spoken to the late Sendashonga.
198.
Ogata, The Turbulent Decade, 196.
199.
Amnesty, Rwanda: Crying Out for Justice, Apr. 1995.
200.
J. Boutroue, “Missed Opportunities: The Role of the International Community in the Return of the Rwandan Refugees from Eastern Zaire: July 1994-December 1996”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Centre for International Studies/UNHCR, Feb. 1998, 6.
201.
Interview with refugees U and BB.
202.
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action, 271.
203.
UNHCR, “Ogata urges Rwandan refugees to consider repatriation”, 25 Oct. 1996. Emphasis added.
204.
Ibid.
205.
UNHCR, “Ogata urges emergency lifelines to refugees and displaced people in Zaire”, 3 Nov. 1996.
206.
Le Monde, “La France a du mal à convaincre l’ONU de l’urgence d'une intervention au Zaïre”, 8 Nov. 1996.
207.
G. Coles “Approaching the Refugee Problem Today”, 381.
208.
Amnesty, “CRISIS IN EASTERN ZAIRE: Amnesty International’s appeal for the protection of human rights in the crisis in eastern Zaire”, 8 Nov. 1996.
209.
P.-C. Ndacyayisenga, Dying to Live: A Rwandan Family’s Five-Year Flight Across the Congo, Montreal, Baraka Books, 2012, 80.
210.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 173.
211.
Ndacyayisenga, Dying to Live, 80.
212.
Ibid.
213.
Ibid, 80.
214.
Ibid, 96.
215.
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action, 271.
216.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 208.
217.
MSF, Forced flight: a brutal strategy of elimination in eastern Zaire, Apr. 1997, 6.
218.
To be more precise, these soldiers are RPF as AFDL was more interested in overthrowing Mobutu regime than hunting Rwandan refugees.
219.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 210.
220.
MSF, Forced flight, 8.
221.
Ibid, 8–9.
222.
UNHCR, The State of World’s Refugees: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action, 278.
223.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 211. When I asked about this compensation to my former UNHCR senior colleagues who worked in the DRC at that time, the only reply I received was “there must be a misunderstanding. How can the UNHCR do such a thing?” If that were true, that would mean Umutesi has made a false statement and stained UNHCR’s honour. In that case, as Harrell-Bond pointed out, why did not the UNHCR sue Umutesi and the publishing company?
224.
Umutesi, Surviving the Slaughter, 211.
225.
Ibid, 209.
226.
Ibid, 155.
227.
Interview with refugees K, P, U, and BB.
228.
Interview with refugees P, U, and BB.
229.
MSF, Forced flight, 7.
230.
Interview with a refugee NN.
231.
Interview with a refugee NN.
232.
Interview with a refugee V.
233.
Interview with a refugee V.
234.
Interview with a refugee V.
235.
Interview with a refugee V. Regarding forceful repatriation from Gabon, see Amnesty, Ending the Silence, 39.
236.
Amnesty, Rwanda: Human rights overlooked in mass repatriation, Jan. 1997, 9.
237.
Long, The Point of No Return, 133.
238.
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action, 264.
239.
Amnesty, Rwanda: Human rights overlooked in mass repatriation, 8.
240.
S. Power, Chasing the Flame: Sergio Vieira de Mello and the Fight to Save the World, London, Penguin Books, 2008, 212.
241.
R. Bonner, “U.N. Shift on Rwandans A Bow to ‘New Realities’”, New York Times, 21 Dec. 1996.
242.
Power, Chasing the Flame, 212.
243.
UNHCR, The State of the World’s Refugees: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action, 265.
244.
B. E. Whitaker, “Changing Priorities in Refugee Protection: The Rwandan Repatriation from Tanzania”, Refugee Survey Quarterly, 21 (1&2), 2002, 328.
245.
Ibid, 329.
246.
Bonner, “U.N. Shift on Rwandans A Bow to ‘New Realities’”.
247.
Ibid.
248.
Power, Chasing the Flame, 214.
249.
Whitaker, “Changing Priorities in Refugee Protection”, 329.
250.
Ibid.
251.
International Refugee Rights Initiative et al., A Dangerous Impasse, 21; Power, Chasing the Flame, 215.
252.
Amnesty, Rwanda: Human rights overlooked in mass repatriation, 15.
253.
Ibid, 12.
254.
Ibid.
255.
UN Press Release, “Armed Elements must be Removed from Refugee Camps, Representative of Rwanda Tells General Assembly’s Third Committee”, GA/SHC/3436, 4 Nov. 1997. Emphasis added.
256.
Amnesty, Ending the Silence, 3.
257.
Ibid, 12.
258.
Ibid, 26.
259.
Ibid.
260.
Interview with a refugee K.
261.
Interview with refugees K and M.
262.
Interview with a refugee K.
263.
Amnesty, Ending the Silence, 3.
264.
Ibid, 2.
265.
HRW, “Rwanda”, World Report, 1999.
266.
Ibid.
267.
Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis, 365.
268.
Ibid.
269.
UN, Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda Submitted by Mr. René Degni-Séqui, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/1995/70, 11 Nov. 1994, para. 24.
270.
Ibid.
271.
Des Forges “Land in Rwanda”, 358.
272.
Amnesty, Ending the Silence, 31.
273.
Takeuchi and Marara, “Land tenure security in post-conflict Rwanda”, 92.
274.
J. W. Bruce, “Return of land in post-conflict Rwanda: International standards, improvisation, and the role of international humanitarian organizations”, J. Unruh and R. Williams eds., Land and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding, Oxon, Routledge, 2013, 129.
275.
Takeuchi and Marara, “Land tenure security in post-conflict Rwanda”, 97.
276.
Pottier, Re-imagining Rwanda, 194.
277.
C. Newbury, “High Modernism at the Ground Level: The Imidugudu Policy in Rwanda”, Straus and Waldorf (eds.), Remaking Rwanda, 231, 233.
278.
Pottier, Re-imagining Rwanda, 194–195.
279.
Ibid.
280.
HRW, Chap. 10. Land, Uprooting the Rural Poor in Rwanda.
281.
Des Forces, “Land in Rwanda”, 363.
282.
J. Bruce, “Drawing a line under the crisis: Reconciling returnee land access and security in post-conflict Rwanda”, Humanitarian Policy Group Working Paper, June 2007, 10; UNHCR Executive Committee of the Commissioner’s Programme, “Legal Safety Issues in the Context of Voluntary Repatriation”, EC/54/SC/CRP.12, 7 Jun. 2004, para. 16.
283.
Des Forges, “Land in Rwanda”, 362.
284.
HRW, Chap. 10: Land, Uprooting the Rural Poor in Rwanda.
285.
Pottier, Re-imagining Rwanda, 196.
286.
Takeuchi and Marara, “Land tenure security in post-conflict Rwanda”, 92.
287.
Amnesty, Ending the Silence, 33.
288.
HRW, “Solidarity camps”, World Report 2000.
289.
Amnesty, Ending the Silence, 34.
290.
Takeuchi and Marara, “Land tenure security in post-conflict Rwanda”, 93.
291.
Amnesty, Ending the Silence, 15.
292.
HRW, Chap. 8: The Use of Force, Uprooting the Rural Poor in Rwanda. email from Rever, 16 Jan. 2019.
293.
Des Forges, “Land in Rwanda”, 362.
294.
U.S. Department of State Office of the Spokesman Press Statement, “Massacre at Mudende Refugee Camp, Rwanda”, 17 Dec. 1997. https://1997-2001.state.gov/briefings/statements/971218.html.
295.
Rever, In Praise of Blood, 142.
296.
Ibid.
297.
Ibid, 143.
298.
Ibid.
299.
C. Huggins, “Land in return, reintegration and recovery processes: Some lessons from the Great Lakes region of Africa”, Unchartered Territory: Land, conflict and humanitarian action, Sara Pantuliano ed., Practical Action Publishing, 2009, 72. According to the UNHCR statistics of 1999, 604,200 were newly displaced in 1998, but 625,000 IDPs returned home in 1999. UNHCR, Refugees and Others of Concern to UNHCR, 1999 Statistical Overview, Jul. 2000, Table 1.3. https://www.unhcr.org/3ae6bc834.
300.
HRW, Chap. 10: Land, Uprooting the Rural Poor in Rwanda.
301.
Des Forges, “Land in Rwanda”, 363–364.
302.
Ogata, The Turbulent Decade, 231.

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Economics and Informatics Department, Tsukuba Gakuin University, Tsukuba, Japan
Masako Yonekawa

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Yonekawa, M. (2020). New-Caseload Hutu Refugees’ Flight and Their Refusal to Return (1994–1997). In: Post-Genocide Rwandan Refugees. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6756-3_3

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6756-3_3
Published: 06 December 2019
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