Abstract
As a result of years of wars and the unstable domestic political situation, the National Government was too busy to focus on the press and publication, which was most notable in the primary stage of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression. Especially given the rise of local wars of resistance against aggression, struggles between the KMT and CCP, the intensification of the social gap between the rich and poor in China and class contradictions, the National Government could not afford to surveil the press and publications.
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Notes
- 1.
Throughout the history of modern Chinese journalism, the National Government had always implemented a policy of “suppressing and utilizing” the news media. On the one hand, the National Government expanded freedom of the press many times when attempting to use the public opinions from local news to resist the Communist Party and the Japanese invaders to serve its purposes; on the other hand, the left-wing and even the Chinese Communist Party news media also grew vigorously and conflicted with the National Government’s mainstream ideology. As a result, the National Government had to inspect news books and journals. “Sometimes intensifying” was the news policy implemented by the National Government in mainland China when it was in power.
- 2.
Ding Jiashu (1907–1990), author and publisher, his pen names included Ding Miao, Ding Ding , Lin Fan, Ma Keba, Lingyun, Yema, Jinma, and Xiaying. He received his primary education in Shanghai and later graduated from Shanghai University. In 1926, his Literary Theory on Revolution was published by Taidong Publishing House and was influential in literary circles. He served as the principal of a middle school, professor of a university, chief commentator and editor-in-chief of a newspaper office. In 1948, he brought his wife (writer He Baolan) and son to Hong Kong and served as the principal of the Nanyang middle school of Singapore. His main works include poetry, Red Autumnal Leaves, and the novel Romantic Love History.
- 3.
“From the Editor”, Jie Xi, 1931.12.21(1).
- 4.
Mao Zedong criticized the fact that “literature and art are in the imperialist service. Zhou Zuoren and Zhang Ziping are examples of this, and it is therefore called traitor literature and art” [6]. After the Yan’an forum of art and literature, the publication of CCP named Zhang Ziping again and criticized him and “Nationalist Literature”. The National Government stated: “these opinionated authors think that they wrote for all humanity, which is indeed objectively expressed in their works, when they only wrote for some people and a given class”. The traitor literature and art of Zhou Zuoren and Zhang Ziping, the Rose and Butterfly ‘Nationalist literature’, regardless of their efforts to conceal the fact, cannot conceal the identity of their master; they wrote for invaders and rulers”. “Brief Introduction of Dialogue in Yan’an forum of art and literature”, Xinhua Daily, 1944.1.1(6).
- 5.
The official name of the “Third Party” is “the provisional actions committee of KMT”. This political party is different from the KMT-Communist cooperative relationship and between the KMT and CCP; it appeared after the failure of the Great Revolution. Its exploration of an exit from China is reflected in a series of articles published by Deng Yanda such as Political Proposition of the Provisional Actions Committee of KMT and Where Does China Go. In 1935, the party changed its name to the Chinese Nation Liberation Action Committee. In March 1941, the committee organized the China Federation of Democratic Political Groups. After the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression succeeded, it actively participated in fighting for peace and democracy and opposing civil war and dictatorship. In February 1947, its name changed to the Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party, one of democratic parties of mainland China. For convenience, the chapter unified the name as the “Third Party”, except for special references.
- 6.
Su Xuelin was caustic about the book; she commented that reflections of poor character are present in the works of Zhang Ziping . One is the lack of patience; i.e., he hated the Japanese and had no praise of them, and he tried to insult them in Daughter of Tension. The name of the character also has a contemptuous meaning: the name of the heroine, “Flower”, is also “Ahua”. Her mother had secret communications with others, and her name is “chastity”; her father’s name is “Suzuki Cow Taro”, and uncle’s name is “Pig Taro”. The plot of the book is that the daughter of a major general came down in China and became a dancing girl and unlicensed prostitute. College students had illicit intercourse at the beginning and deserted a girl of good birth at the end; an imperial soldier raped a maid via fraud and became a human trafficker; a patrolman froze children to death in the snow; the ugly and promiscuous facets of the procurer are ignored by people. It is said that the book was translated into Japanese and published in the Shanghai Daily of Yu Hewen and was detested by the Japanese. For fear of being beaten by the Japanese, Mr. Zhang was afraid of going to N. Sichuan Road of Shanghai. Later, it was rumored that he was beaten to death by an alcoholic Japanese sailor. I am not willing to defend the Japanese, but I think that Zhang’s death at the hands of the Japanese is reason for celebration. His emotion includes the spirit-winning method of the “Mr. Q style” [7].
- 7.
“From the Editor”, Jie Xi, 1931.12.21(1).
- 8.
“From the Editor”, Jie Xi, 1931.12.21(1).
- 9.
The specific article refers to the second and third issues of Forward Weekly on June 29th, 1930 and July 6th, 1930.
- 10.
The periodical sponsored by the literary clubs in modern China rarely changed editors-in-chief. For example, Critical Review, Conversation by Writing, Analects of Confucius, Threads, Crescent, Contradiction, Wilderness Overgrown with Grass and others are edited by sponsors from beginning to end. The only relatively obvious “core replacement” is the magazine “Lion’s Roar” sponsored by the “Lion’s Roar Club”. It had to change editors-in-chief because of objective reasons such as expenditure and core members going abroad. Given the political status, popularity and economic strength of Zhang Ziping at that time, semi Jie Xi should not have changed to a monthly periodical or even “changed editors”.
- 11.
“From the Editor”, Jie Xi, 1931.12.21(1).
- 12.
This does not mean that Chinese intellectuals had not attempted theoretical discussions on “Democratic Socialism” or similar political ideologies. Earlier, before the Revolution of 1911, reformists scholar Jiang Kanghu and Canadian doctor William E. Macklin not only founded the “Chinese Socialist Party” together and even developed “Land tax going to public testing ground” in a suburb of Nanking; in the early Republic of China, Liu Shifu also founded “Anarchism village” in Chi’an of Xin’an, etc. [13].
- 13.
“Scream Poems and Narrative Novels”. Jie Xi, 1932.9.15(2).
- 14.
“Scream Poems and Narrative Novels”. Jie Xi, 1932.9.15(2).
- 15.
“Scream Poems and Narrative Novels”.
- 16.
“Scream Poems and Narrative Novels”.
- 17.
“Editors’ Note”. Jie Xi, 1931.12.21(1).
- 18.
Western literature theories that were previously introduced to China include formalism: “China’s interest in contemporary Western literature theories can be dated to as early as the 1930s, when new criticism was prosperous in the United Kingdom. China’s understanding of new criticism had much to do with the new British critics I.A. Richards and William Empson. Richards had taught at Tsinghua University (1929–1931) to promote a ‘Basic English’ he invented while teaching Comparative Literature and other courses. His view of literary criticism was then introduced to China.” It is not an exaggeration to say that there were many translations; for example, “Qian Zhongshu discussed his Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) in the early 1930s, and Cao Baohua translated his book Science and Poetry in 1937. Under his influence, William Empson taught at Peking University (1937, 1947–1952) and Southwest Associated University (1939).” The Wuhan University Quarterly Journal of Liberal Arts also published articles of Zhang Yuanchang and Chen Xiying et al. regarding new criticism. Additionally, the poems of T.S. Eliot, I.A. Richards and I. Winters were translated and introduced to China [16]. In the period of 1930–1940, aestheticism, modernism and other western literature theories under the influence of formalist literary criticism were introduced to China. Several poets such as Sinmay Zau , Pien Chih-lin , Li Jinfa, and Zhu Xiang, et al. were all influenced by such thoughts, and they composed many poems.
- 19.
Yu Xiuyun (1910–?), from Shanghai, was the granddaughter of major Shanghai financial figure Yu Qiaqing, a poetess, drama actress, and socialite in Shanghai. She had published her photos and poems in the journal Ling Long. As she liked to express emotions in her poems, she was ironically called “Miss Ahyaya” by Lu Xun in Deng Long Shu Gleanings. She published a collection of poems, Hu Feng , using the pen name “Yu Yan”.
- 20.
“Beg for Love”. Jie Xi, 1932.9.15(2).
- 21.
Ke Zhongping (1902–1964), from Baoning, Yunnan. Studied at the University of Political Science and Law in Beijing and was a famous poet and writer. After 1949, he successively served as Deputy Director of the Northwest Commission of Military Affairs and Politics Culture and Education Sector, Dean of the Northwest College of Art, and Vice Chairman of the China Writers Association.
- 22.
“Scream Poems and Narrative Novels”. Jie Xi, 1932.9.15(2).
- 23.
“Scream Poems and Narrative Novels”. Jie Xi, 1932.9.15(2).
- 24.
Peter Lavrov (ПётрЛавровичЛавров, 1823–1900), Russian philosopher and populist thinker. He graduated from Mikhailovsky Artillery School in 1842 and participated in the Paris Commune movement. He was the author of Hegel and the Philosophy of Praxis and other works and had an enormous impact on later generations.
- 25.
Peter Lavrov. “Historical Letters” [22, p. 178].
- 26.
In the history of modern Chinese thought, the most famous work signed “Zhong Kan” is Kang Sheng Critical Biography, which was jointly created in the name of “Zhong Kan” by CCP history experts Ma Zhongyang and Li Kan. Ma Zhongyang and Li Kan were born in 1922, and they were only 9 years old by 1931, so it is obvious that Outline of Populism Principles has nothing to do with “Zhong Kan”, but in the memoir Picking Up Footprints by Ji Fang (signed as Fang Shu) (Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party Central Committee, 1983, Page 42), the article “Life of Mr. Deng Yanda ” specifically described that “from his returning to the country in May 1930 to August 1931, when arrested, there was only more than one year between; (Deng Yanda) wrote lots of articles, including the most important versions such as Outline of Popular Literary and Art Principles……”. Qiu Ting and Guo Xiaochun [23] also mentioned that “(Deng Yanda) drafted more than 20 files and declarations, nearly 200,000 words, and most of these articles and files were published in Revolutionary Action Monthly, including the most of those such as Outline of Popular Literary and Art Principles…”. Therefore, “Zhong Kan” must be Deng Yanda’s pen name.
- 27.
Zhong Kan. “Outline of Popular Literary and Art Principles”.
- 28.
Zhong Kan. “Outline of Popular Literary and Art Principles”.
- 29.
Zhong Kan. “Outline of Popular Literary and Art Principles”.
- 30.
Also called the “Anti-Christian Movement”, it was popular among Chinese youths and intellectuals in the twenties and thirties in the 20th century. Academic circles generally believed that the nature of this movement is a theocratic nationalism cultural movement, which is a continuous line of the “May Fourth Movement”. The movement began in 1922 when Zhou Zuoren , Qian Xuan, etc. opposed the fact that “the world Christian student’s union conference” was to be held at Tsinghua University; intellectuals demanded that the spread of Christianity in China need to go the way of “the indigenous church”, i.e., to align with Chinese characteristics and national conditions. For a long period after the “non-ground motion”, this movement has influenced and determined the indigenous spread of Christianity in China. Zhao Zichen, Cheng Jingyi, Wang Zhixin and Jia Yuming launched and established the indigenous churches in China successively. Other scholars think, according to the newly discovered files, that, “the non-ground motion” had a certain relationship with the support of the CCP at that time [26,27,28].
- 31.
Li Zegang . “Pasture”.
- 32.
Yang Changxi . “Tobacco tax”.
- 33.
Yang Changxi . “Tobacco tax”.
- 34.
“Fu Fu”, Jie Xi, 1932.9.15 (2).
- 35.
“Fu Fu”, Jie Xi.
- 36.
Dobrolyubov, (николай але ксандрович добролюбов, 1836–1861), the famous revolutionary democratic and literary critic in Russia in the 19th century, studied at the Peterburg Central Normal University. After graduating from the university in 1857, he joined the Modern People magazine for editorial work. He published a series of brilliant papers and had an extensive and far-reaching influence.
- 37.
Another article, well-known in the history of modern Chinese literature entitled Condoling Today’s Battlefield, was written by Wang Tongzhao and was completed in 1937. Therefore, this version should not be related to the one written by Wang.
- 38.
“Condoling Today’s Battlefield”, Jie Xi, 1932.9.15(2).
- 39.
“Condoling Today’s Battlefield”.
- 40.
“Condoling Today’s Battlefield”.
- 41.
“Condoling Today’s Battlefield”.
- 42.
“Condoling Today’s Battlefield”.
- 43.
Because Shanghai Mayor Zhang Qun was unable to control the situation and gave way to Wu Tiecheng , the latter did not stop the outbreak of the “January 28th Incident”. After the incident, Wu Tiecheng, on behalf of the National Government, signed the Songhu Armistice Agreement of national betrayal and humiliation with Japan, ruining the results of the war of resistance against Japan that was achieved by the military in Shanghai for as long as 3 months. In April 1937, when Wu Tiecheng was transferred to the role of Guangdong Provincial Government President, Yu Hongjun was continued to resist the Japanese and organized the “August 13th” Songhu Campaign. In October 1937, after the defeat of the Songhu Campaign, the Japanese ministry, with agents from “Nishimura’s Office”, successively supported Su Xiwen , Fu Xiaoan , Zhou Fohai , and other traitorous politicians to serve as the puppet “Shanghai Dadao Government” Mayor and "supervising office" director. After two wars of resistance, Shanghai was completely occupied.
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Han, S.H. (2018). The “Third Party” and Jie Xi . In: Literature Journals in the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression in China (1931-1938). Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6448-7_2
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