Comparisons with Asian and Non-Asian Societies: The United States, Australia, Japan, Russia, China, and India

Abstract

Hirschmann (Exit, voice, and loyalty: responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1970) posits the three choices one faces in organizations when one feels an organization is deteriorating in making profits or getting documents efficiently processed or maintaining harmonious social relations in the workplace, or what not. His model is applied to the situation when a citizen applies for a government permit and is met with a callous response from the government official. The question: What should a person who needs a government permit do if the response of the official handling the application is: “just be patient and wait?” (SA) The question was asked to 50,0000-plus respondents in randomly sampled nationwide surveys in 29 Asian societies, plus three adjacent societies—the United States, Russia and Australia.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Coding of Dependent Variables and Independent Variables

List of dependent variables

• Voice1 = 1 if the respondent chooses (1) for the following question; Voice1 = 0 otherwise

• Voice4 = 1 if the respondent chooses (4) for the following question; Voice4 = 0 otherwise

• Voice6 = 1 if the respondent chooses (6) for the following question; Voice6 = 0 otherwise

• Exit5 = 1 if the respondent chooses (5) for the following question; Exit5 = 0 otherwise

• Loyalty2 = 1 if the respondent chooses (2) for the following question; Royalty2 = 0 otherwise

• Loyalty3 = 1 if the respondent chooses 3 for the following question; Royalty3 = 0 otherwise

.

Question: What should a person who needs a government permit do if the response of the official handling the application is: “just be patient and wait?”

• (1) Use connections to obtain the permit

• (2) Nothing can be done

• (3) Wait and hope that things will work out

• (4) Write a letter

• (5) Act without a permit

• (6) Bribe an official

• (7) Don’t know.

List of independent variables

*Independent variables consist of six groups:

• (A) Lifestyles

• (B) Exposure to globalization

• (C) Satisfaction with aspects of life

• (D) Trust in social institution

• (E) Assessment of government performance

• (F) Demographics.

• (A) Lifestyles

  Number of public utilities counts the number of public utilities the household of the respondents have of the following public utilities: public water supply; electricity; liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), piped gas; fixed-line phone; mobile phone; facsimile; cable TV.

  Homeownership = 1 if the respondent lives in own house, not rented house.

  Pray takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: How often do you pray or meditate? The coding is as follows: Daily = 5; Weekly = 4; Monthly = 3; On special occasions = 2; Never = 1.

  National elections takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: How often do you vote in national election? The coding is as follows: Every time = 5; Most of the time = 4; Sometimes = 3; Rarely = 2; Never voted = 1.

  Proud takes on the values from 1 to 5 as follows for question: How proud are you of being [YOUR COUNTRY’S PEOPLE]?: Very proud = 4; Somewhat proud = 3; Not really proud = 2; Not proud at all = 1.

• (B) Exposure to globalization

  Internet takes the values from 1 to 5 for question: How often do you view Internet web pages by computers? The coding is as follows: Almost every day = 5; Several times a week = 4; Several times a month = 3; Seldom = 2; Never = 1.

  Living internationally counts the number of items that apply to the respondent in question: Which, if any, of the following statements apply to you?

  The six items are the following: (1) A member of my family or a relative lives in another country; (2) I have traveled abroad at least three times in the past three years, on holiday or for business purposes; (3) I have friends from other country who are in [YOUR COUNTRY]; (4) I often watch foreign-produced programs on TV; (5) I often communicate with people in other countries via the Internet or email; (6) My job involves contact with organizations or people in other countries.

  In Russia, the translations of the words “another country,” “abroad,” “other counties,” and “foreign” in the question specifically excluded countries of former Soviet Union to clarify the definition.

  English ability takes the values from 1 to 4 for question: How well do you speak English? The coding is as follows: I can speak English fluently = 4; I can speak it well enough to get by in daily life = 3; Very little = 2; Not at all = 1.

• (C) Satisfaction with aspects of life

  Housing takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with your housing. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Friendships take on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with your friendships. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Marriage takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with your marriage. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Standard of living takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with the standard of living. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Household income takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with household income. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Health takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with your health. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Education takes on the values from 1 to 5 for Q8: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with education. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Neighbors takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with neighbors. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Public safety takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with public safety. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  The condition of the environment takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with the condition of the environment. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Social welfare system takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with the social welfare system. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  The democratic system takes on the values from 1 to 5 for Q8: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with the democratic system. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Family life takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with family life. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Leisure takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with leisure. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Spiritual life takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with spiritual life. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Your life as a whole takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: Please tell me how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with your life as a whole. The coding is as follows: Very satisfied = 5; Somewhat satisfied = 4; Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; Somewhat dissatisfied = 2; Very dissatisfied = 1.

  Happiness takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: All things considered, would you say that you are happy these days? The coding is as follows: Very happy = 5; Quite happy = 4; Neither happy nor unhappy = 3; Not too happy = 2; Very unhappy = 1.

• (D) Trust in social institution

  Trust generally = 1 if the respondent thinks that most people can be trusted for question: Generally, do you think people can be trusted or do you think that you can’t be too careful in dealing with people (that it pays to be wary of people)?; 0 otherwise.

  Trust the central government takes on the values from 1 to 4 for question: “Please indicate to what extent you trust the central government to operate in the best interests of society. If you don’t know what to reply or have no particular opinion, please say so.” The coding is as follows: Trust a lot = 4; Trust to a degree = 3; Don’t really trust = 2; Don’t trust at all = 1.

  Trust the army takes on the values from 1 to 4 for question: “Please indicate to what extent you trust the army to operate in the best interests of society. If you don’t know what to reply or have no particular opinion, please say so.” The coding is as follows: Trust a lot = 4; Trust to a degree = 3; Don’t really trust = 2; Don’t trust at all = 1.

  Trust the legal system takes on the values from 1 to 4 for question: “Please indicate to what extent you trust the legal system to operate in the best interests of society. If you don’t know what to reply or have no particular opinion, please say so.” The coding is as follows: Trust a lot = 4; Trust to a degree = 3; Don’t really trust = 2; Don’t trust at all = 1.

  Trust the police takes on the values from 1 to 4 for question: “Please indicate to what extent you trust the police to operate in the best interests of society. If you don’t know what to reply or have no particular opinion, please say so.” The coding is as follows: Trust a lot = 4; Trust to a degree = 3; Don’t really trust = 2; Don’t trust at all = 1.

• (E) Assessment of government performance

  Worry about corruption = 1 if the respondent worries about corruption in question: “Which, if any, of the following issues cause you great worry? Please choose all issues that cause you serious worry.”

  Political corruption takes on the values from 1 to 4 for question: How well do you think the [YOUR COUNTRY’S] government is dealing with political corruption. The coding is as follows: Very well = 4; Fairly well = 3; Not so well = 2; Not well at all = 1.

  Duty to vote takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: “I am going to read out some statements about society and politics. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement: Citizens have a duty to vote in elections.” The coding is as follows: Strongly agree = 5; Agree = 4; Neither agree nor disagree = 3; Disagree = 2; Strongly disagree = 1.

  Widespread corruption takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: “I am going to read out some statements about society and politics. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement: There is widespread corruption among those who govern the country.” The coding is as follows: Strongly agree = 5; Agree = 4; Neither agree nor disagree = 3; Disagree = 2; Strongly disagree = 1.

  No power takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: “I am going to read out some statements about society and politics. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement Generally speaking, people like me don’t have the power to influence government policy or actions.” The coding is as follows: Strongly agree = 5; Agree = 4; Neither agree nor disagree = 3; Disagree = 2; Strongly disagree = 1.

  Complicated takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: “I am going to read out some statements about society and politics. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement: Politics and government are so complicated that sometimes I don’t understand what’s happening.” The coding is as follows: Strongly agree = 5; Agree = 4; Neither agree nor disagree = 3; Disagree = 2; Strongly disagree = 1.

  No matter whether I vote takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: “I am going to read out some statements about society and politics. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement: Since so many people vote in elections, it really doesn‘t matter whether I vote or not.” The coding is as follows: Strongly agree = 5; Agree = 4; Neither agree nor disagree = 3; Disagree = 2; Strongly disagree = 1.

  Stop thinking takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: “I am going to read out some statements about society and politics. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement: Generally speaking, the people who are elected to the [NATIONAL PARLIAMENT] stop thinking about the public once they’re elected.” The coding is as follows: Strongly agree = 5; Agree = 4; Neither agree nor disagree = 3; Disagree = 2; Strongly disagree = 1.

  Pay little attention takes on the values from 1 to 5 for question: I am going to read out some statements about society and politics. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement: Government officials pay little attention to what citizens like me think.” The coding is as follows: Strongly agree = 5; Agree = 4; Neither agree nor disagree = 3; Disagree = 2; Strongly disagree = 1.

  Experts takes on the values from 1 to 3 for question: “I’m going to describe various types of political systems. Please indicate whether you think it would be very good, fairly good or bad for this country for a system whereby decisions affecting the country are made by experts (such as bureaucrats with expertise in a particular field) according to what they think is best for the country.” The coding is as follows: Very good = 3; Fairly good = 2; Bad = 1.

  Bribe takes on the values from 1 to 10 for question: Please tell me whether you think it can always be justified, never be justified, or something in between for the statement: Someone accepting a bribe in the course of their duties. This variable takes on the values from 1 to 10. 1 corresponds to “Never justifiable” and 10 corresponds to “Always justifiable.”

• (F) Demographics

  Female = 1 if the respondent is female; 0 if male.

  Age is the age of the respondent.

  Level of education is the highest level of education the respondent completed. This variable takes on the values from 1 to 5 from low to high. 1 corresponds to either no formal education or illiterate.

  Married = 1 if the marital status of the respondent is married; 0 otherwise.

  Income is the level of household income of the respondent. The variable takes on the values from 1(low) to 3(high).

Appendix 2: Estimation Results (Logit Regression)

US

Dependent variable	Voice 1		Voice 4		Voice 6		Exit 5		Loyalty 2		Loyalty 3
Independent variables	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.
(A) Lifestyles
Number of public utilities	0.07	0.6	−0.27	(−2.35)a	–	–	0.04	0.14	0.53	(2.25)a	0.14	0.96
Homeownership	−0.01	−0.02	0.29	0.88	–	–	−0.59	−0.67	−0.80	−1.27	−0.16	−0.39
Pray	−0.13	−1.3	0.03	0.28	–	–	−0.13	−0.49	−0.12	−0.62	0.15	1.28
National elections	0.19	1.31	−0.16	−1.22	–	–	0.59	1.38	0.52	1.69	−0.14	−0.89
Proud	0.01	0.03	−0.06	−0.28	–	–	0.56	0.8	−0.26	−0.52	0.24	0.73
(B) Exposure to globalization
Internet	0.24	(2.35)a	0.09	0.95	–	–	0.50	1.5	−0.36	−1.87	−0.29	(−2.75)b
Living internationally	0.10	1.28	0.02	0.27	–	–	−0.33	−1.16	−0.14	−0.77	−0.06	−0.57
English ability	0.16	0.29	0.88	1.27	–	–	−1.82	−1.73	−0.50	−0.67	−0.17	−0.28
(C) Satisfaction with aspects of life
Housing	−0.16	−0.83	0.17	0.91	–	–	0.11	0.2	−0.45	−1.14	−0.03	−0.13
Friendships	0.10	0.48	−0.11	−0.53	–	–	0.06	0.09	0.01	0.04	−0.17	−0.67
Standard of living	−0.41	−1.94	0.04	0.23	–	–	−0.50	−0.84	0.44	1.02	0.50	(1.97)a
Household income	0.26	1.45	−0.14	−0.82	–	–	0.06	0.12	1.39	(3.12)b	−0.38	−1.93
Health	−0.30	−1.85	−0.05	−0.31	–	–	0.44	0.81	0.10	0.31	0.17	0.91
Education	0.21	1.1	−0.21	−1.3	–	–	0.51	0.82	0.55	1.31	−0.23	−1.16
Job	0.08	0.55	−0.19	−1.43	–	–	0.44	0.95	−0.20	−0.68	0.35	1.88
Neighbors	0.10	0.64	−0.02	−0.16	–	–	−0.31	−0.75	0.01	0.03	0.05	0.27
Public safety	−0.13	−0.9	0.29	(2.00)a	–	–	−0.76	−1.7	−0.03	−0.08	−0.09	−0.46
The condition of the environment	−0.19	−1.31	−0.11	−0.85	–	–	0.40	0.95	0.15	0.5	0.24	1.47
Social welfare system	0.14	0.9	−0.12	−0.87	–	–	−0.49	−1.04	−0.23	−0.8	0.02	0.11
The democratic system	−0.08	−0.6	0.09	0.71	–	–	0.35	0.91	0.41	1.44	−0.07	−0.42
Family life	−0.22	−1.21	0.44	(2.50)a	–	–	−0.59	−1.25	−1.46	(−3.72)b	0.11	0.53
Leisure	−0.11	−0.62	−0.07	−0.44	–	–	−0.55	−1.11	0.14	0.33	0.27	1.23
Spiritual life	0.07	0.38	−0.12	−0.7	–	–	−0.13	−0.3	0.76	1.86	−0.21	−0.97
Your life as a whole	0.67	(2.45)a	−0.14	−0.57	–	–	1.14	1.42	−0.85	−1.63	−0.35	−1.21
Happiness	0.10	0.52	0.05	0.27	–	–	0.01	0.03	−0.03	−0.09	−0.32	−1.41
(D) Trust in social institution
Trust generally	−0.03	−0.1	−0.01	−0.06	–	–	−0.77	−1.09	−0.71	−1.4	0.31	1
Trust the central government	−0.002	−0.01	0.15	0.77	–	–	−0.41	−0.72	−0.21	−0.46	−0.02	−0.09
Trust the army	0.04	0.19	−0.04	−0.19	–	–	0.31	0.6	0.07	0.17	−0.05	−0.23
Trust the legal system	0.03	0.15	0.01	0.06	–	–	−0.13	−0.24	0.45	1.13	−−0.33	−1.42
Trust the police	−0.32	−1.58	0.01	0.04	–	–	−0.59	−0.98	0.44	1.13	0.42	1.77
(E) Assessment of government performance
Worry about corruption	0.11	0.39	−0.17	−0.67	–	–	−0.75	−0.84	0.50	1.02	−0.06	−0.19
Political corruption	0.39	(2.26)a	−0.29	−1.72	–	–	−0.38	−0.83	−0.18	−0.59	0.18	0.92
Duty to vote	−0.19	−1.02	0.34	1.84	–	–	−0.61	−1.18	−0.04	−0.11	−0.35	−1.66
Widespread corruption	−0.02	−0.12	0.20	1.4	–	–	−0.76	−1.82	−0.87	(−2.83)b	0.07	0.4
No power	0.19	1.36	−0.26	(−2.02)a	–	–	0.45	1.26	−0.10	−0.35	0.12	0.76
Complicated	0.10	0.8	−0.06	−0.58	–	–	−0.11	−0.37	0.07	0.29	−0.06	−0.42
No matter whether vote	0.07	0.5	−0.20	−1.43	–	–	0.59	1.51	0.70	(2.74)b	−0.25	−1.43
Stop thinking	−0.01	−0.07	−0.12	−0.75	–	–	−0.36	−0.63	1.11	(2.85)b	−0.07	−0.36
Pay little attention	−0.36	(−2.02)a	0.22	1.34	–	–	0.48	0.88	0.25	0.67	−0.03	−0.14
Experts	−0.18	−0.89	0.26	1.38	–	–	−0.86	−1.2	0.50	1.47	−0.19	−0.78
Bribe	−0.05	−0.53	−0.07	−0.74	–	–	0.33	1.53	−0.23	−1.28	−0.01	−0.12
(F) Demographics
Female	−0.25	−1.03	0.37	1.61	–	–	0.29	0.42	0.18	0.4	−0.07	−0.26
Age	−0.01	0.82	0.01	0.71	–	–	0.01	0.34	−0.08	(−3.28)b	0.01	0.66
Level of education	−0.13	−0.84	−0.09	−0.59	–	–	0.68	1.6	−0.02	−0.05	0.09	0.5
Married	−0.34	−1.16	0.13	0.48	–	–	0.05	0.06	0.51	0.88	0.11	0.32
Income	0.12	1.79	0.003	0.04	–	–	−0.14	−0.77	−0.29	(−2.06)a	−0.08	−0.98
Constant	−2.80	−1.01	−3.29	−1.04	–	–	−0.12	−0.02	−5.50	−1.3	0.76	0.24
n	441		441		–		441		441		441
Pseudo R squared	0.1381		0.1126		–		0.3543		0.3698		0.1281

1. Note ^a5% significance level; ^b1% significance levels

Russia

Dependent variable	Voice 1		Voice 4		Voice 6		Exit 5		Loyalty 2		Loyalty 3
Independent variables	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.
(A) Lifestyles
Number of public utilities	0.11	0.77	−0.32	−1.69	1.44	1.96	0.10	0.19	−0.48	−1.61	0.33	1.57
Homeownership	−0.07	−0.21	−0.32	−0.7	−0.75	−0.65	2.28	1.54	0.61	0.79	−0.04	−0.08
Pray	−0.21	−1.92	0.23	1.74	−0.72	−1.43	0.54	1.5	−0.16	−0.77	0.01	0.08
National elections	0.02	0.14	−0.29	−1.41	−1.12	−1.8	−0.02	−0.03	0.38	1.1	0.25	1.08
Proud	0.40	(2.16)a	−0.39	−1.56	−2.35	(−2.76)b	0.20	0.35	−0.38	−1.01	0.26	0.87
(B) Exposure to globalization
Internet	0.03	0.28	0.09	0.6	0.41	0.91	−3.26	(−2.64)b	0.32	1.26	−0.05	−0.27
Living internationally	−0.10	−0.58	−0.12	−0.52	0.14	0.26	1.86	1.81	−0.35	−0.87	0.32	1.14
English ability	0.19	0.82	−0.39	−1.31	0.39	0.47	0.30	0.31	−0.60	−1.29	0.18	0.48
(C) Satisfaction with aspects of life
Housing	−0.13	−0.84	−0.11	−0.56	−0.17	−0.28	1.21	(2.09)a	−0.17	−0.55	0.13	0.55
Friendships	0.44	(2.08)a	0.25	0.85	−1.33	−1.81	−0.53	−0.6	−0.27	−0.68	−0.46	−1.57
Standard of living	0.39	1.84	−0.11	−0.38	−0.55	−0.73	−1.08	−1.57	−0.54	−1.15	−0.01	−0.02
Household income	−0.32	−1.76	0.30	1.33	0.10	0.16	1.18	1.76	0.93	(2.25)a	−0.02	−0.08
Health	−0.03	−0.16	−0.24	−1.12	2.14	(2.42)a	0.72	1.15	0.19	0.58	−0.23	−0.96
Education	−0.12	−0.66	0.17	0.73	−1.14	−1.51	0.78	1.07	0.06	0.2	0.14	0.54
Job	−0.04	−0.23	−0.09	−0.38	1.01	1.52	−0.61	−0.87	0.12	0.34	−0.04	−0.15
Neighbors	−0.30	−1.19	0.52	1.63	2.31	1.91	−0.73	−0.82	−1.92	(−3.35)b	0.45	1.19
Public safety	0.20	1.19	0.20	0.85	0.05	0.09	−0.38	−0.7	0.004	0.01	−0.32	−1.27
The condition of the environment	−0.01	−0.06	0.14	0.63	−1.21	−1.74	0.57	1	−0.65	−1.77	−0.33	−1.39
Social welfare system	−0.27	−1.53	−0.38	−1.66	0.62	1.05	−1.23	−1.56	0.65	1.84	0.64	(2.46)a
The democratic system	0.29	1.73	0.09	0.4	−0.32	−0.56	1.89	(2.23)a	−0.33	−0.96	−0.25	−0.96
Family life	−0.26	−1.33	−0.37	−1.49	0.37	0.6	0.61	0.75	0.56	1.37	0.49	1.55
Leisure	0.05	0.27	0.08	0.32	−0.14	−0.2	0.07	0.1	0.37	0.89	−0.17	−0.63
Spiritual life	0.27	1.15	−0.14	−0.5	−2.00	(−2.39)a	−1.31	−1.59	1.50	(2.63)b	−0.54	−1.7
Your life as a whole	0.06	0.22	−0.41	−1.14	0.78	0.91	1.81	1.71	−1.11	−1.72	0.54	1.28
Happiness	−0.24	−1.07	0.46	1.58	−0.92	−1.14	−1.47	−1.61	0.50	1.09	−0.03	−0.08
(D) Trust in social institution
Trust generally	−0.59	(−2.09)a	0.68	1.88	3.00	(2.18)a	−1.36	−1.26	0.83	1.47	0.10	0.24
Trust the central government	−0.30	−1.4	−0.27	−0.97	1.70	(2.02)a	−0.46	−0.67	1.21	(2.58)a	0.14	0.43
Trust the army	−0.07	−0.35	0.10	0.4	−0.22	−0.33	0.68	0.75	0.66	1.58	0.08	0.28
Trust the legal system	−0.45	−1.85	−0.21	−0.65	−1.36	−1.46	−0.30	−0.37	0.56	1	0.70	1.96
Trust the police	0.48	1.9	0.01	0.04	0.14	0.13	−1.03	−1.11	−1.04	−1.94	−0.41	−1.14
(E) Assessment of government performance
Worry about corruption	0.34	1.18	−0.18	−0.46	0.01	0.01	−2.21	−1.81	−1.60	(−2.42)a	0.23	0.51
Political corruption	−0.41	−1.96	0.40	1.43	0.17	0.23	0.77	1.15	−0.33	−0.8	−0.10	−0.36
Duty to vote	0.06	0.31	0.40	1.66	0.12	0.24	−0.78	−1.22	0.34	0.85	−0.31	−1.16
Widespread corruption	−0.38	(−2.06)a	0.20	0.82	1.77	(2.37)a	1.47	1.83	0.02	0.06	−0.18	−0.7
No power	0.31	(2.10)a	−0.19	−1.13	−1.31	(−2.21)a	−1.05	−1.75	0.29	0.93	−0.16	−0.72
Complicated	−0.08	0.63	−0.02	−0.13	0.63	1.08	−1.42	(−2.36)a	0.11	0.35	0.39	1.75
No matter whether vote	−0.06	0.41	−0.17	−0.97	0.34	0.61	1.11	1.81	−0.11	−0.39	0.11	0.5
Stop thinking	0.22	1.02	0.48	1.67	−1.31	−1.7	−0.63	−0.8	−0.03	−0.08	−0.49	−1.63
Pay little attention	−0.31	1.3	−0.70	(−2.26)a	1.52	1.67	1.68	1.64	0.44	0.86	0.64	1.8
Experts	0.18	0.83	−0.19	−0.68	0.46	0.6	−0.25	−0.39	0.42	0.88	0.14	0.42
Bribe	−0.07	0.96	−0.20	−1.94	0.04	0.17	0.19	0.97	0.40	(2.53)a	0.03	0.26
(F) Demographics
Female	−0.23	−0.83	1.00	(2.62)b	−2.07	−1.86	−0.81	−0.92	0.25	0.41	−0.25	−0.58
Age	−0.02	−1.24	0.02	1.24	0.03	0.54	−0.04	−0.84	0.03	1.23	−0.01	−0.39
Level of education	0.14	0.96	0.26	1.35	−0.36	−0.64	−2.08	(−2.46)a	0.13	0.43	−0.32	−1.35
Married	0.33	1.11	0.38	0.9	−2.57	(−2.06)a	0.03	0.03	−0.15	−0.27	−0.41	−0.93
Income	0.10	1.11	0.20	1.61	−0.06	−0.18	0.59	1.65	−0.52	(−2.34)a	−0.42	(−2.73)a
Constant	0.16	0.09	−1.79	−0.73	−7.44	−1.04	−3.74	−0.58	−9.20	(−2.35)a	−3.87	−1.34
n	335		335		335		335		335		335
Pseudo R squared	0.1443		0.2151		0.514		0.4825		0.3297		0.2148

1. Note ^a5% significance level; ^b1% significance level

Australia

Dependent variable	Voice 1		Voice 4		Voice 1		Exit 5		Loyalty 2		Loyalty 3
Independent variables	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.
(A) Lifestyles
Number of public utilities	0.22	1.05	0.07	0.55	–	–	−0.66	−0.53	−0.47	−1.64	−0.03	−0.2
Homeownership	−0.43	−1.02	0.20	0.74	–	–	−0.96	−0.45	0.12	0.21	−0.18	−0.61
Pray	0.18	1.42	0.02	0.31	–	–	1.46	1.54	−0.19	−1.15	−0.04	−0.52
National elections	0.33	1.13	−0.25	−1.69	–	–	–	–	0.64	1.4	0.02	0.1
Proud	0.12	0.29	0.13	0.56	–	–	−5.72	−1.62	0.48	1	−0.12	−0.47
(B) Exposure to globalization
Internet	0.51	(3.32)b	−0.10	−1.18	–	–	−0.70	−0.93	0.08	0.4	−0.14	−1.57
Living internationally	−0.14	−1.1	0.06	0.8	–	–	−0.34	−0.5	0.13	0.77	−0.01	−0.16
English ability	0.59	0.49	0.56	1.28	–	–	–	–	−0.76	−1.34	0.01	0.03
(C) Satisfaction with aspects of life
Housing	0.50	(1.99)a	−0.32	(−2.26)a	–	–	1.75	1.26	0.04	0.12	0.15	1.02
Friendships	−0.49	−1.6	0.46	(2.25)a	–	–	−2.24	−1.13	−0.83	(−2.52)a	0.03	0.16
Standard of living	−0.15	−0.51	0.06	0.35	–	–	−1.03	−0.59	−0.16	−0.47	−0.04	−0.2
Household income	−0.17	−0.72	−0.24	−1.6	–	–	−1.21	−0.93	0.18	0.63	0.32	(2.01)a
Health	−0.19	−0.8	−0.34	(−2.32)a	–	–	0.60	0.55	0.14	0.5	0.36	(2.24)a
Education	−0.15	−0.55	0.40	(2.24)a	–	–	2.73	1.13	−0.24	−0.68	−0.37	−1.9
Job	0.10	0.5	0.05	0.4	–	–	0.91	0.85	0.16	0.62	−0.16	−1.22
Neighbors	0.30	1.36	−0.01	−0.06	–	–	0.52	0.44	−0.18	−0.79	−0.13	−1.02
Public safety	−0.20	−0.9	0.06	0.41	–	–	−2.41	−1.27	0.12	0.42	0.02	0.16
The condition of the environment	0.22	1.1	0.06	0.44	–	–	0.28	0.33	−0.42	−1.44	−0.04	−0.26
Social welfare system	0.05	0.25	−0.05	−0.41	–	–	−1.68	−1.33	0.14	0.49	0.11	0.74
The democratic system	−0.05	−0.21	0.12	0.81	–	–	3.14	1.78	−0.19	−0.65	−0.20	−1.3
Family life	−0.14	−0.48	−0.22	−1.3	–	–	0.51	0.46	−0.27	−0.77	0.41	(2.04)a
Leisure	0.23	0.64	−0.16	−0.8	–	–	1.96	1	0.22	0.49	0.16	0.75
Spiritual life	−0.09	−0.35	−0.14	−0.91	–	–	−1.21	−0.84	0.10	0.31	0.20	1.25
Your life as a whole	0.32	0.76	0.34	1.42	–	–	1.70	0.84	−0.08	−0.17	−0.58	(−2.28)a
Happiness	0.15	0.52	−0.30	−1.6	–	–	−0.34	−0.19	0.47	1.15	0.16	0.79
(D) Trust in social institution
Trust generally	−0.06	−0.16	0.09	0.36	–	–	2.21	0.99	−1.01	−1.89	0.04	0.15
Trust the central government	0.04	0.15	0.09	0.58	–	–	−1.97	−1.37	−0.11	−0.38	0.11	0.67
Trust the army	0.39	1.25	−0.46	(−2.64)b	–	–	2.01	1.05	0.001	0	0.33	1.74
Trust the legal system	−0.26	−0.96	0.26	1.54	–	–	−1.54	−1.07	−0.15	−0.48	−0.08	−0.45
Trust the police	−0.07	−0.28	−0.01	−0.08	–	–	2.85	1.47	0.27	0.84	0.01	0.03
(E) Assessment of government performance
Worry about corruption	0.39	1.02	−0.21	−0.84	–	–	0.56	0.3	−0.32	−0.59	0.03	0.1
Political corruption	0.65	(2.35)a	−0.10	−0.57	–	–	−1.08	−0.58	−0.14	−0.4	−0.18	−0.97
Duty to vote	−0.17	−0.7	−0.03	−0.22	–	–	−0.46	−0.29	0.32	0.91	0.10	0.6
Widespread corruption	−0.06	−0.29	0.17	1.24	–	–	−0.54	−0.34	−0.36	−1.32	−0.11	−0.72
No power	−0.07	−0.35	−0.09	−0.72	–	–	−2.23	−1.39	0.56	1.95	0.07	0.51
Complicated	0.27	1.49	0.001	0.01	–	–	−1.51	−1.09	0.11	0.45	−0.07	−0.59
No matter whether vote	0.13	0.69	−0.07	−0.58	–	–	1.62	1.3	0.22	0.98	−0.04	−0.33
Stop thinking	0.39	1.66	−0.24	−1.67	–	–	−0.33	−0.31	0.45	1.6	−0.06	−0.39
Pay little attention	−0.19	−0.77	0.18	1.17	–	–	1.05	0.75	−0.16	−0.47	−0.10	−0.62
Experts	0.65	(2.27)a	−0.17	−0.92	–	–	2.37	1.28	−0.67	−1.64	0.03	0.15
Bribe	0.24	1.91	−0.27	(−2.69)b	–	–	−0.49	−0.56	−0.24	−1.06	0.13	1.48
(F) Demographics
Female	−0.0001	0	0.30	1.24	–	–	−0.66	−0.32	−0.44	−0.9	−0.09	−0.36
Age	0.02	1.44	0.02	1.88	–	–	−0.14	−1.02	−0.03	−1.56	−0.02	(−2.00)a
Level of education	0.10	0.47	0.06	0.46	–	–	−4.15	−1.76	0.05	0.19	−0.07	−0.51
Married	0.05	0.11	0.12	0.49	–	–	−1.68	−0.86	−0.33	−0.65	0.07	0.28
Income	0.03	0.33	0.19	(3.07)b	–	–	0.06	0.1	−0.08	−0.62	−0.16	(−2.47)a
Constant	−16.48	(−2.79)b	−1.39	−0.55	–	–	19.64	0.96	0.44	0.1	0.09	0.03
n	430		430		–		379		430		430
Pseudo R squared	0.1788		0.1374		–		0.4939		0.2512		0.1083

1. Note ^a5% significance level; ^b1% significance level

Japan

Dependent variable	Voice 1		Voice 4		Voice 6		Exit 5		Loyalty 2		Loyalty 3
Independent variables	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.
(A) Lifestyles
Number of public utilities	0.79	(2.76)b	0.05	0.37	–	–	0.62	(2.14)a	−0.16	−1.4	−0.09	−0.9
Homeownership	−0.90	−1.4	−0.70	−1.96	–	–	−1.25	(−1.97)a	0.35	1.16	0.45	1.63
Pray	0.01	0.08	0.01	0.16	–	–	0.11	0.66	−0.01	−0.16	−0.04	−0.56
National elections	−0.44	−1.73	0.09	0.53	–	–	−0.06	−0.19	0.25	(2.01)a	−0.15	−1.24
Proud	−0.10	−0.27	0.004	0.02	–	–	−0.17	−0.47	−0.12	−0.74	0.09	0.62
(B) Exposure to globalization
Internet	0.06	0.43	0.18	(2.13)a	–	–	−0.43	(−2.40)a	−0.10	−1.43	0.03	0.47
Living internationally	0.14	0.76	0.05	0.44	–	–	0.56	(2.53)a	−0.06	−0.6	−0.17	−1.74
English ability	−0.93	(−2.33)a	0.45	(2.02)a	–	–	−0.72	−1.59	0.28	1.52	−0.22	−1.36
(C) Satisfaction with aspects of life
Housing	0.42	1.13	0.33	1.86	–	–	0.13	0.42	−0.26	−1.88	−0.09	−0.74
Friendships	0.14	0.33	−0.38	−1.86	–	–	−0.18	−0.41	0.11	0.62	0.13	0.79
Standard of living	−0.23	−0.53	0.02	0.08	–	–	−0.41	−0.91	0.03	0.17	0.05	0.26
Household income	0.23	0.67	−0.34	−1.72	–	–	0.28	0.74	0.02	0.15	0.08	0.56
Health	−0.19	−0.63	0.09	0.52	–	–	−0.55	−1.68	0.18	1.34	−0.06	−0.46
Education	0.05	0.14	−0.45	(−2.30)a	–	–	0.77	1.94	0.06	0.36	0.14	0.89
Job	0.62	1.62	0.16	0.86	–	–	0.35	0.99	−0.07	−0.41	−0.21	−1.41
Neighbors	−0.13	−0.35	−0.07	−0.36	–	–	0.07	0.19	−0.18	−1.13	0.25	1.67
Public safety	0.84	(2.11)a	0.02	0.09	–	–	−0.06	−0.17	−0.12	−0.76	−0.04	−0.32
The condition of the environment	−0.38	−0.87	−0.21	−1.06	–	–	0.33	0.93	0.20	1.22	−0.10	−0.65
Social welfare system	0.15	0.38	0.25	1.32	–	–	−0.44	−1.17	−0.15	−0.86	0.06	0.36
The democratic system	−0.38	−0.99	−0.26	−1.32	–	–	0.001	0	0.12	0.66	0.11	0.7
Family life	−0.23	−0.5	0.54	(2.20)a	–	–	−0.27	−0.68	−0.29	−1.42	0.08	0.43
Leisure	−0.17	−0.48	−0.24	−1.29	–	–	−0.25	−0.66	0.33	1.94	−0.09	−0.61
Spiritual life	−0.07	−0.13	0.67	(2.73)b	–	–	0.70	1.47	−0.35	−1.76	−0.18	−0.99
Your life as a whole	−0.44	−0.75	0.06	0.19	–	–	−0.60	−0.98	0.09	0.35	0.07	0.3
Happiness	−0.43	−1.07	−0.31	−1.5	–	–	−0.21	−0.54	0.22	1.31	0.14	0.93
(D) Trust in social institution
Trust generally	−0.17	−0.37	−0.01	−0.05	–	–	−0.54	−1.03	−0.21	−0.99	0.29	1.47
Trust the central government	0.55	1.17	0.02	0.1	–	–	0.21	0.43	−0.27	−1.32	0.05	0.27
Trust the army	−0.08	−0.19	−0.05	−0.25	–	–	−0.37	−1.01	−0.11	−0.69	0.19	1.26
Trust the legal system	0.54	1.14	0.05	0.22	–	–	−0.07	−0.16	−0.14	−0.69	−0.08	−0.41
Trust the police	−0.54	−1.22	0.09	0.38	–	–	−0.38	−0.85	0.00	0	0.20	1.1
(E) Assessment of government performance
Worry about corruption	0.33	0.57	−0.17	−0.56	–	–	−0.84	−1.26	0.15	0.6	0.03	0.12
Political corruption	0.35	0.93	−0.05	−0.21	–	–	−0.28	−0.67	0.12	0.66	0.01	0.08
Duty to vote	0.40	0.97	0.10	0.46	–	–	−0.20	−0.48	−0.002	−0.01	−0.19	−1.16
Widespread corruption	0.32	1.09	0.11	0.83	–	–	−0.30	−1.34	0.06	0.54	−0.09	−0.83
No power	0.39	1.38	−0.37	(−2.62)b	–	–	−0.08	−0.31	0.25	(2.08)a	−0.04	−0.37
Complicated	−0.57	−2	−0.09	−0.57	–	–	−0.36	−1.24	−0.01	−0.1	0.27	(2.26)
No matter whether vote	0.45	1.81	−0.15	−1.04	–	–	−0.24	−0.86	0.30	(2.76)b	−0.18	−1.71
Stop thinking	−0.03	−0.11	−0.21	−1.34	–	–	0.35	1.09	−0.12	−0.86	0.11	0.87
Pay little attention	0.54	1.64	−0.12	−0.77	–	–	0.50	1.35	−0.09	−0.71	−0.02	−0.2
Experts	−0.02	−0.05	0.52	(2.42)a	–	–	−0.14	−0.34	−0.23	−1.28	−0.14	−0.88
Bribe	0.08	0.7	−0.06	−0.76	–	–	0.01	0.11	−0.05	−0.84	0.03	0.57
(F) Demographics
Female	−1.43	(−2.52)a	0.71	(2.56)a	–	–	−0.50	−0.93	0.27	1.23	−0.31	−1.53
Age	−0.02	−0.72	0.01	0.45	–	–	−0.0003	−0.01	−0.01	−1.35	0.02	1.71
Level of education	0.20	0.74	0.20	1.34	–	–	0.17	0.55	−0.35	(−2.63)b	0.11	0.91
Married	0.37	0.54	0.09	0.26	–	–	−0.71	−1.14	−0.12	−0.42	0.20	0.74
Income	0.04	0.55	−0.01	−0.22	–	–	−0.02	−0.3	0.07	(2.33)a	−0.04	−1.58
Constant	−9.60	(−2.50)a	−3.29	−1.64	–	–	1.48	0.38	1.08	0.66	−1.96	−1.31
n	565		565		–		565		565		565
Pseudo R squared	0.2867		0.1784		–		0.2664		0.1032		0.0697

1. Note ^a5% significance level; ^b1% significance level

China

Dependent variable	Voice 1		Voice 4		Voice 6		Exit 5		Loyalty 2		Loyalty 3
Independent variables	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.
(A) Lifestyles
Number of public utilities	−0.002	−0.01	−0.003	−0.02	–	–	0.79	1.17	−0.09	−0.6	0.16	1.04
Homeownership	−0.12	−0.51	−0.22	−0.92	–	–	−2.25	(−2.56)a	0.66	(2.56)a	−0.16	−0.74
Pray	−0.01	−0.09	−0.11	−0.83	–	–	−0.46	−0.75	0.11	0.95	0.02	0.19
National elections	0.12	1.41	−0.04	−0.46	–	–	–	–	0.01	0.12	−0.11	−1.27
Proud	0.05	0.32	0.23	1.25	–	–	0.40	0.68	−0.26	−1.5	−0.08	−0.48
(B) Exposure to globalization
Internet	0.09	0.92	0.06	0.59	–	–	−0.06	−0.17	−0.15	−1.5	0.02	0.22
Living internationally	−0.01	−0.06	0.32	(2.09)a	–	–	−2.26	−1.9	0.01	0.05	−0.18	−1.18
English ability	−0.28	−1.18	−0.18	−0.73	–	–	0.15	0.18	0.24	0.93	0.18	0.78
(C) Satisfaction with aspects of life
Housing	−0.05	−0.34	0.10	0.69	–	–	1.25	(2.18)a	0.01	0.04	−0.04	−0.27
Friendships	0.17	0.92	−0.27	−1.53	–	–	−0.29	−0.5	−0.03	−0.15	0.09	0.52
Standard of living	0.10	0.47	0.26	1.21	–	–	−0.78	−1.2	−0.57	(−2.64)b	0.22	1.09
Household income	−0.10	−0.5	−0.37	−1.82	–	–	0.16	0.23	0.20	0.98	0.19	1.03
Health	−0.02	−0.13	0.06	0.41	–	–	−0.22	−0.44	0.03	0.19	−0.09	−0.67
Education	0.05	0.29	−0.10	−0.58	–	–	0.10	0.19	0.14	0.83	−0.21	−1.34
Job	−0.28	−1.63	0.11	0.63	–	–	−0.36	−0.79	−0.01	−0.06	0.25	1.57
Neighbors	−0.08	−0.48	−0.09	−0.5	–	–	0.61	1.07	0.19	1.07	−0.05	−0.33
Public safety	0.32	1.9	0.05	0.3	–	–	0.36	0.65	−0.16	−0.87	−0.14	−0.87
The condition of the environment	−0.42	(−2.35)a	0.21	1.15	–	–	−0.11	−0.17	0.36	1.94	−0.15	−0.9
Social welfare system	0.26	1.57	−0.13	−0.75	–	–	−0.04	−0.07	−0.06	−0.33	0.11	0.68
The democratic system	−0.13	−0.81	−0.09	−0.53	–	–	0.42	0.81	0.29	1.71	−0.10	−0.61
Family life	0.09	0.49	0.08	0.4	–	–	−1.55	(−2.33)a	−0.05	−0.27	−0.08	−0.5
Leisure	−0.07	−0.43	0.12	0.65	–	–	−0.22	−0.34	−0.02	−0.13	−0.22	−1.34
Spiritual life	0.38	(2.00)a	0.19	0.99	–	–	−0.14	−0.2	−0.35	−1.75	−0.17	−0.99
Your life as a whole	−0.23	−0.98	−0.27	−1.12	–	–	−1.58	−1.92	0.17	0.75	0.29	1.34
Happiness	0.11	0.64	−0.07	−0.4	–	–	1.06	1.62	0.19	1.09	−0.03	−0.19
(D) Trust in social institution
Trust generally	−0.15	−0.64	0.22	0.86	–	–	−1.19	−1.56	0.06	0.25	0.05	0.21
Trust the central government	−0.01	−0.07	0.17	0.8	–	–	−0.04	−0.05	−0.23	−1.09	0.03	0.13
Trust the army	−0.33	−1.9	0.27	1.39	–	–	−0.80	−1.36	0.08	0.42	0.10	0.56
Trust the legal system	−0.34	−1.89	−0.09	−0.48	–	–	−0.23	−0.41	0.19	1.03	0.28	1.61
Trust the police	−0.01	−0.05	−0.08	−0.46	–	–	0.46	0.89	0.09	0.49	−0.01	−0.07
(E) Assessment of government performance
Worry about corruption	−0.15	−0.64	−0.07	−0.3	–	–	0.50	0.68	0.08	0.32	0.11	0.48
Political corruption	−0.24	−1.39	0.37	(2.17)a	–	–	−1.57	(−2.26)a	−0.10	−0.6	0.14	0.9
Duty to vote	−0.06	−0.28	−0.04	−0.22	–	–	−1.11	−1.46	−0.27	−1.36	0.26	1.4
Widespread corruption	0.09	0.7	−0.04	−0.32	–	–	−0.11	−0.25	−0.0002	0	−0.12	−1.08
No power	0.21	1.46	−0.27	−1.83	–	–	0.35	0.63	−0.02	−0.11	0.06	0.44
Complicated	−0.04	−0.22	0.27	1.49	–	–	−0.32	−0.56	0.04	0.22	−0.17	−1.05
No matter whether vote	0.05	0.36	−0.10	−0.74	–	–	1.18	(2.11)a	−0.01	−0.05	0.04	0.36
Stop thinking	−0.01	−0.08	−0.002	−0.02	–	–	0.30	0.58	0.08	0.59	−0.12	−0.93
Pay little attention	−0.18	−1.28	−0.12	−0.81	–	–	−1.02	−1.94	0.09	0.63	0.24	1.75
Experts	−0.04	−0.21	0.08	0.42	–	–	−0.32	−0.49	−0.04	−0.19	0.07	0.38
Bribe	0.16	(2.82)b	−0.02	−0.33	–	–	0.15	0.74	−0.09	−1.25	−0.10	−1.58
(F) Demographics
Female	−0.25	−1.16	0.35	1.58	–	–	−1.82	(−2.36)a	0.19	0.84	−0.09	−0.42
Age	−0.005	−0.38	−0.01	−0.57	–	–	0.04	0.99	−0.02	−1.26	0.02	(2.01)a
Level of education	0.22	1.31	−0.04	−0.23	–	–	0.91	1.56	−0.23	−1.32	0.02	0.12
Married	0.61	1.75	−0.04	−0.11	–	–	1.81	1.15	−0.04	−0.13	−0.51	−1.65
Income	0.04	1.21	0.01	0.37	–	–	0.08	0.63	−0.02	−0.54	−0.05	−1.38
Constant	−0.56	−0.31	−1.76	−0.94	–	–	−0.73	−0.12	0.10	0.05	−3.59	(−2.05)a
n	564		564		–	–	809		564		564
Pseudo R squared	0.1047		0.0742		–	–	0.4557		0.0845		0.0706

1. Note ^a5% significance level; ^b1% significance level

India

Dependent variable	Voice 1		Voice 4		Voice 6		Exit 5		Loyalty 2		Loyalty 3
Independent variables	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.	Coeff.	z-stat.
(A) Lifestyles
Number of public utilities	0.01	0.04	0.01	0.05	−0.25	−0.82	−0.11	−0.28	−0.02	−0.08	0.23	1.39
Homeownership	−0.46	−1.93	0.16	0.53	0.87	1.32	0.17	0.23	0.03	0.08	0.16	0.61
Pray	−0.24	−1.86	−0.11	−0.77	0.11	0.37	0.52	0.88	0.55	1.89	0.25	1.4
National elections	0.04	0.35	−0.33	(−2.23)a	0.32	1.02	0.51	1.44	−0.36	−1.63	0.21	1.5
Proud	−0.17	−0.5	0.14	0.37	−0.60	−0.79	–	–	−1.44	(−3.09)b	0.55	1.31
(B) Exposure to globalization
Internet	−0.29	(−2.71)b	−0.21	−1.52	−0.27	−0.98	0.29	1.06	0.56	(3.19)b	0.23	(2.27)a
Living internationally	0.04	0.3	−0.11	−0.57	0.21	0.68	0.30	0.86	−0.003	−0.01	0.02	0.12
English ability	0.25	1.61	0.17	0.88	0.81	1.91	−0.19	−0.39	−0.34	−1.16	−0.36	(−2.13)a
(C) Satisfaction with aspects of life
Housing	−0.13	−0.7	0.09	0.42	0.54	0.95	0.88	1	−0.34	−1.13	0.20	0.92
Friendships	0.23	1.31	0.22	0.98	−0.35	−0.73	−0.54	−0.95	−0.24	−0.91	−0.24	−1.28
Standard of living	−0.36	−1.87	0.22	0.97	1.14	(2.06)a	1.67	(2.54)a	0.05	0.18	−0.06	−0.31
Household income	0.16	0.96	−0.07	−0.35	−0.20	−0.47	0.13	0.22	−0.15	−0.58	0.09	0.5
Health	0.39	(2.23)a	−0.44	(−2.22)a	−0.74	−1.77	−0.05	−0.1	−0.01	−0.05	0.23	1.18
Education	−0.03	−0.18	0.54	(2.68)b	−0.05	−0.12	−1.01	−1.88	−0.52	(−2.08)a	−0.28	−1.49
Job	0.33	(2.17)a	−0.36	−1.95	−0.18	−0.5	1.06	(2.00)a	−0.59	(−2.42)a	0.12	0.74
Neighbors	−0.22	−1.33	0.23	1.21	0.18	0.42	−0.29	−0.56	0.30	1.1	−0.17	−0.97
Public safety	0.28	(2.00)a	−0.24	−1.44	0.10	0.31	0.15	0.35	−0.26	−0.93	0.02	0.16
The condition of the environment	−0.35	(−2.70)b	0.07	0.45	0.67	1.91	0.73	1.69	0.23	0.99	0.16	1.15
Social welfare system	0.01	0.05	−0.42	(−2.23)a	−0.03	−0.08	−0.68	−1.46	0.48	1.76	0.12	0.71
The democratic system	−0.05	−0.34	0.29	1.71	−0.25	−0.67	−0.56	−1.43	−0.10	−0.42	0.06	0.39
Family life	0.43	(2.35)a	−0.47	(−2.28)a	−0.45	−0.94	−0.44	−0.91	0.25	0.91	−0.12	−0.66
Leisure	0.08	0.49	−0.11	−0.51	−0.16	−0.36	−0.98	−1.81	0.20	0.66	−0.13	−0.7
Spiritual life	−0.06	−0.37	0.09	0.43	0.004	0.01	−0.35	−0.65	0.10	0.34	0.01	0.05
Your life as a whole	0.10	0.54	−0.02	−0.08	0.80	1.55	−0.16	−0.3	−0.57	−1.95	−0.09	−0.43
Happiness	−0.14	−0.87	0.12	0.66	−0.30	−0.73	0.08	0.14	0.44	1.51	−0.17	−1.04
(D) Trust in social institution
Trust generally	−0.43	−1.89	−0.16	−0.56	−0.43	−0.7	0.06	0.1	0.06	0.16	0.66	(2.68)b
Trust the central government	−0.23	−1.79	0.01	0.09	−0.73	(−2.44)a	−0.33	−0.85	0.25	1.03	0.33	(2.21)a
Trust the army	0.03	0.22	−0.23	−1.43	0.41	1.05	0.45	1	−0.47	(−2.16)a	0.26	1.58
Trust the legal system	−0.18	−1.27	−0.14	−0.77	0.18	0.5	−0.25	−0.54	0.19	0.66	0.12	0.77
Trust the police	0.21	1.61	−0.51	(−3.15)b	−0.49	−1.55	0.92	1.93	0.13	0.56	0.10	0.74
(E) Assessment of government performance
Worry about corruption	−0.04	−0.17	0.13	0.41	0.47	0.65	0.27	0.37	−0.20	−0.51	0.03	0.11
Political corruption	−0.25	−1.92	−0.16	−1.02	−1.13	(−2.87)b	−0.31	−0.86	0.53	(2.44)a	0.36	(2.69)b
Duty to vote	0.26	1.2	0.41	1.6	−0.16	−0.26	−0.41	−0.76	−0.37	−1.05	−0.30	−1.29
Widespread corruption	−0.61	(−3.40)b	0.48	(2.20)a	0.69	1.49	1.31	(2.37)a	0.02	0.06	0.01	0.04
No power	−0.22	−1.63	0.17	0.99	−0.18	−0.59	−0.45	−1.18	0.55	1.96	0.13	0.87
Complicated	0.17	1.24	−0.18	−1.13	−0.08	−0.26	−0.51	−1.21	0.0005	0	0.03	0.25
No matter whether vote	−0.01	−0.15	0.001	0.01	0.30	1.52	1.20	(3.29)b	0.16	1.01	−0.24	(−2.61)b
Stop thinking	−0.10	−0.67	0.07	0.39	−0.10	−0.25	−0.42	−0.87	0.25	1	0.08	0.49
Pay little attention	0.22	1.48	−0.25	−1.43	0.32	0.93	−0.24	−0.58	0.02	0.08	−0.03	−0.17
Experts	0.09	0.5	0.17	0.8	−1.07	(−2.34)a	−0.43	−0.92	−0.15	−0.49	−0.02	−0.1
Bribe	0.05	0.69	−0.15	−1.32	−0.003	−0.01	0.22	1.05	0.34	(2.57)a	−0.16	−1.57
(F) Demographics
Female	0.18	0.78	−0.05	−0.16	0.22	0.35	0.38	0.6	0.11	0.27	−0.19	−0.74
Age	−0.004	−0.41	−0.003	−0.23	0.03	1.15	0.01	0.43	0.01	0.42	−0.01	−0.48
Level of education	−0.03	−0.24	−0.13	−0.8	−0.35	−1.01	−0.10	−0.25	−0.12	−0.51	0.26	1.88
Married	−0.12	−0.42	0.65	1.6	−0.96	−1.46	−1.25	−1.51	1.05	1.7	−0.41	−1.29
Income	−0.03	−0.36	−0.19	−1.78	−0.45	−1.95	−0.77	(−2.26)a	0.20	1.49	0.16	(2.22)a
Constant	0.62	0.31	0.34	0.15	−2.60	−0.57	−7.59	−1.16	−0.57	−0.16	−7.92	(−3.26)b
n	526		526		526		442		526		526
Pseudo R squared	0.1690		0.1956		0.2968		0.4189		0.344		0.1624

1. Note ^a5% significance level; ^b1% significance level