Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Greening Cities pp 251–277Cite as

Urban Ecological Networks for Biodiversity Conservation in Cities

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Advances in 21st Century Human Settlements ((ACHS))

Abstract

Triggered by concerns of global biodiversity loss, cities are increasingly called upon to play an increased role in biodiversity conservation, leading to a surge in interest in urban biodiversity conservation. In playing this role, greening of cities needs to move beyond mere provision of amenities or ecosystem services to one of providing habitats for native biodiversity. This chapter describes one of the approaches for enhancing urban biodiversity conservation through the ecological network approach. The concept of ecological networks is not new in the field of ecology. However, its application to cities, both in conceptual and operational forms, is highly limited. As a high-rise, high-density city in which biodiversity conservation is threatened by other competing land uses, Singapore is used as an example to illustrate the development and application of the ecological network approach. The ecological network is built on the concept of network, spatial and landscape cohesions . Using methods in landscape ecology , remote sensing, biodiversity conservation and the Analytic Hierarchy Process , this chapter describes how a toolkit for ecological network can be developed, as well as the efficacy of its use for biodiversity management. The toolkit is categorized into monitoring tools, mapping tools, and communication and decision making tools. The learning outcomes gleaned from the research are presented as the 5-multis: multispecies, multiscalar, multilevel, multifunctionality, and multidisciplinarity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdullah SA, Nakagoshi N (2006) Changes in landscape spatial pattern in the highly developing state of Selangor, peninsular Malaysia. Landsc Urban Plann 77(3):263–275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balvanera P, Pfisterer AB, Buchmann N, He J-S, Nakashizuka T, Raffaelli D, Schmid B (2006) Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services. Ecol Lett 9(10):1146–1156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benedict MA, McMahon ET (2006) Green infrastructure: linking landscapes and communities. Island Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaustein R (2013) Urban biodiversity gains new converts: cities around the world are conserving species and restoring habitat. Bioscience 63(2):72–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolck M, de Togni G, van der Sluis T, Jongman RHG (2004) From models to reality: design and implementation process. In: Jongman R, Pungetti G (eds) Ecological networks and greenways: concept, design, implementation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bouwma I, Opdam P, Schrevel A (2003) Ecological networks: linking protected areas with sustainable development. Brochure Alterra, Wageningen

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown C, Grant M (2005) Biodiversity and human health: what role for nature in healthy urban planning? Built Environ 31(4):326–338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruinderink GG, van der Sluis T, Lammertsma D, Opdam P, Pouwels R (2003) Designing a coherent ecological network for large mammals in Northwestern Europe. Conserv Biol 17(2):549–557

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Gonzalez A, Hooper DU, Perrings C, Venail P, Narwani A, Mace GM, Tilman D, Wardle DA, Kinzig AP, Daily GC, Loreau M, Grace JB, Larigauderie A, Srivastava DS, Naeem S (2012) Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 486(7401):59–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan L, Djoghlaf A (2009) Invitation to help compile an index of biodiversity in cities. Nature 460(7251):33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou LM (2010) Biodiversity in sustainable cities. In: Ooi GL, Yuen B (eds) World cities: achieving liveability and vibrancy. World Scientific Publishing, Singapore, pp 135–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook EA, van Lier HN (eds) (1994) Landscape planning and ecological networks. Elsevier Science B. V, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Coppolillo P, Gomez H, Maisels F, Wallace R (2004) Selection criteria for suites of landscape species as a basis for site-based conservation. Biol Conserv 115(3):419–430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corlett RT (1992) The ecological transformation of Singapore, 1819–1990. J Biogeogr 19:411–420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dearborn DC, Kark S (2010) Motivations for conserving urban biodiversity. Conserv Biol 24(2):432–440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dennis RLH, Dapporto L, Dover JW, Shreeve TG (2013) Corridors and barriers in biodiversity conservation: a novel resource-based habitat perspective for butterflies. Biodivers Conserv 22(12):2709–2734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dover J, Settele J (2008) The influences of landscape structure on butterfly distribution and movement: a review. J Insect Conserv 13(1):3–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farinha-Marques P, Lameiras JM, Fernandes C, Silva S, Guilherme F (2011) Urban biodiversity: a review of current concepts and contributions to multidisciplinary approaches. Innov Eur J Soc Sci Res 24(3):247–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiedler PL, White PS, Leidy RA (1997) The paradigm shift in ecology and its implications for conservation. In: Pickett STA, Ostfeld RS, Shachak M, Likens GE (eds) The ecological basis of conservation: heterogeneity, ecosystems, and biodiversity. Chapman & Hall, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Forman RTT (1995) Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutman G, Ignatov A (1998) The derivation of the green vegetation fraction from NOAA/AVHRR data for use in numerical weather prediction models. Int J Remote Sens 19(8):1533–1543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines-Young R (2000) Sustainable development and sustainable landscapes: defining a new paradigm for landscape ecology. Fennia 178:7–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Haines-Young R, Green DR, Cousins S (1993) Landscape ecology and spatial information systems. In: Haines-Young R, Green DR, Cousins S (eds) Landscape ecology and geographic information systems. Taylor & Francis, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilty JA, Lidicker WZ Jr, Merenlender AM (2006) Corridor ecology: the science and practice of linking landscapes for biodiversity conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoctor TS, Carr MH, Zwick PD, Maehr DS (2004) The Florida Statewide Greenways Project: its realization and political context. In: Jongman R, Pungetti G (eds) Ecological networks and greenways: concept, design, implementation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz P, Kretsch C, Jenkins A, Abdul Hamid ARb, Burls A, Campbell K, Carter M, Henwood W, Lovell R, Malone-Lee LC, McCreanor T, Moewaka-Barnes H, Montenegro RA, Parkes M, Patz J, Roe JJ, Romanelli C, Sitthisuntikul K, Stephens C, Townsend M, Wright P (2015) Contribution of biodiversity and green spaces to mental and physical fitness, and cultural dimensions of health. UNEP, World Health Organization and Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

    Google Scholar 

  • Hough RL (2014) Biodiversity and human health: evidence for causality? Biodivers Conserv 23(2):267–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeger JAG (2000) Landscape division, splitting index, and effective mesh size: new measures of landscape fragmentation. Landscape Ecol 15:115–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James P, Tzoulas K, Adams MD, Barber A, Box J, Breuste J, Elmqvist T, Frith M, Gordon C, Greening KL, Handley J, Haworth S, Kazmierczak AE, Johnston M, Korpela K, Moretti M, Niemelä J, Pauleit S, Roe MH, Sadler JP, Ward Thompson C (2009) Towards an integrated understanding of green space in the European built environment. Urban For Urban Greening 8(2):65–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jongman RHG (2004) The context and concepts of ecological networks. In: Jongman RHG, Pungetti G (eds) Ecological networks and greenways: concept, design, implementation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Koh LP, Sodhi NS (2004) Importance of reserves, fragments, and parks for butterfly conservation in a tropical urban landscape. Ecol Appl 14:1695–1708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kostyack J, Lawler JJ, Goble DD, Olden JD, Scott JM (2011) Beyond reserves and corridors: policy solutions to facilitate the movement of plants and animals in a changing climate. Bioscience 61(9):713–719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambeck RJ (1997) Focal species: a multi-species umbrella for nature conservation. Conserv Biol 11:849–856

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaPoint S, Balkenhol N, Hale J, Sadler J, van der Ree R (2015) Ecological connectivity research in urban areas. Funct Ecol 29(7):868–878

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laurance WF et al (2012) Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas. Nature 489(7415):290–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linstone HA, Turoff M (1975) The Delphi method: techniques and applications. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., Reading

    Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Marks BJ (1995) FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. Forest Science Department, Oregon State University

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller JR (2006) Restoration, reconciliation, and reconnecting with nature nearby. Biol Conserv 127(3):356–361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moss MR (2000) Interdisciplinarity, landscape ecology and the “Transformation of Agricultural Landscapes”. Landscape Ecol 15:303–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naeem S, Duffy JE, Zavaleta E (2012) The functions of biological diversity in an age of extinction. Science 336(6087):1401–1406

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noss RF (1992) Issues of scale in conservation biology. In: Fiedler PL, Jain SK (eds) Conservation biology: the theory and practice of nature conservation, preservation and management. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 240–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Noss RF (1994) Hierarchical indicators for monitoring changes in biodiversity. Essay 4A. In: Meffe GK, Carroll CR (eds) Principle of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, pp 79–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Oh K, Lee D, Park C (2011) Urban ecological network planning for sustainable landscape management. J Urban Technol 18(4):39–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opdam P (2002) Assessing the conservation potential of habitat networks. In: Gutzwiller KJ (ed) Applying landscape ecology in biological conservation. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Opdam P, Verboom J, Pouwels R (2003) Landscape cohesion: an index for the conservation potential of landscapes for biodiversity. Landscape Ecol 18:113–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opdam P, Steingröver E, Sv Rooij (2006) Ecological networks: a spatial concept for multi-actor planning of sustainable landscapes. Landsc Urban Plann 75(3–4):322–332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phua M-H, Minowa M (2005) A GIS-based multi-criteria decision making approach to forest conservation planning at a landscape scale: a case study in the Kinabalu Area, Sabah, Malaysia. Landsc Urban Plann 71(2–4):207–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett STA, Zhou W (2015) Global urbanization as a shifting context for applying ecological science toward the sustainable city. Ecosyst Health Sustain 1(1):1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML, Grove JM, Boone CG, Groffman PM, Irwin E, Kaushal SS, Marshall V, McGrath BP, Nilon CH, Pouyat RV, Szlavecz K, Troy A, Warren P (2011) Urban ecological systems: scientific foundations and a decade of progress. J Environ Manage 92(3):331–362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimm SL, Jenkins CN, Abell R, Brooks TM, Gittleman JL, Joppa LN, Raven PH, Roberts CM, Sexton JO (2014) The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 344(6187):1246752

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Public Utilities Board (2014) Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters design guidelines. Public Utilities Board (PUB)

    Google Scholar 

  • Redman CL, Grove JM, Kuby LH (2004) Integrating social science into the long-term ecological research (LTER) network: social dimensions of ecological change and ecological dimensions of social change. Ecosystems 7(2):161–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reza MIH, Abdullah SA, Nor SBM, Ismail MH (2013) Integrating GIS and expert judgment in a multi-criteria analysis to map and develop a habitat suitability index: a case study of large mammals on the Malayan Peninsula. Ecol Ind 34:149–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg DK, Noon BR, Meslow EC (1997) Biological corridors: form, function, and efficacy. Linear conservation areas may function as biological corridors, but they may not mitigate against additional habitat loss. Bioscience 47(10):677–687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saaty TL (1980) The analytic hierarchy process. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Saaty TL (2001) Decision making for leaders: the analytic hierarchy process for decisions in a complex world. RWS Publications, Pittsburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • Saaty TL (2005) The analytic hierarchy and analytic network processes for the measurement of intangible criteria and for decision-making. Int Ser Oper Res Manag Sci 78:345–407

    Google Scholar 

  • Saaty TL (2008) Decision making with the analytic hierarchy process. Int J Serv Sci 1(1):83–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Saaty TL, Vargas LG (2001) Models, methods, concepts & applications of the analytic hierarchy process. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Savard J-PL, Clergeau P, Mennechez G (2000) Biodiversity concepts and urban ecosystems. Landsc Urban Plann 48:131–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schooley RL, Branch LC (2011) Habitat quality of source patches and connectivity in fragmented landscapes. Biodivers Conserv 20(8):1611–1623

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2006) Global biodiversity outlook 2. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

    Google Scholar 

  • Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2012) Cities and biodiversity outlook. Action and policy. A global assessment of the links between urbanization, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

    Google Scholar 

  • Seto KC, Güneralp B, Hutyra LR (2012) Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon pools. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(40):16083–16088

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sodhi NS, Brook BW, Bradshaw CJA (2007) Tropical conservation biology. Blackwell, Malden

    Google Scholar 

  • Steudel B, Hector A, Friedl T, Löfke C, Lorenz M, Wesche M, Kessler M (2012) Biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning change along environmental stress gradients. Ecol Lett 15(12):1397–1405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland WJ (ed) (2006) Ecological census techniques: a handbook. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan KW (2006) A greenway network for singapore. Landscape and urban planning 76(1–4):45–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tian Y, Jim CY, Tao Y, Shi T (2011) Landscape ecological assessment of green space fragmentation in Hong Kong. Urban For Urban Greening 10(2):79–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Teeffelen AJA, Vos CC, Opdam P (2012) Species in a dynamic world: consequences of habitat network dynamics on conservation planning. Biol Conserv 153:239–253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verboom J, Pouwels R (2004) Ecological functioning of ecological networks: a species perspective. In: Jongman R, Pungetti G (eds) Ecological networks and greenways: concept, design, implementation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Verboom J, Froppen R, Chardon P, Opdam P, Luttikhuizen P (2001) Introducing the key patch approach for habitat networks with persistent populations: an example for marshland birds. Biol Conserv 100:89–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vos CC, Verboom J, Opdam PFM, ter Braak CJF (2001) Towards ecologically scaled landscape indices. Am Nat 183(1):24–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vrijlandt P, Kerkstra K (1994) A strategy for ecological and urban development. In: Cook EA, van Lier HN (eds) Landscape planning and ecological networks. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Walz U, Syrbe R-U (2013) Linking landscape structure and biodiversity. Ecol Ind 31:1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiens JA (2002) Central concepts and issues of landscape ecology. In: Gutzwiller KJ (ed) Applying landscape ecology in biological conservation. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Loucks OL (1995) From balance of nature to hierarchical patch dynamics: a paradigm shift in ecology. Q Rev Biol 70(4):439–466

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zonneveld I (1994) Landscape ecology and ecological networks. In: Cook EA, van Lier HN (eds) Landscape planning and ecological networks. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank A.T.K. Yee for providing the GIS shapefiles of forests in Singapore.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

    Abdul Rahim Hamid & Puay Yok Tan

Authors
  1. Abdul Rahim Hamid
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Puay Yok Tan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Abdul Rahim Hamid .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

    Puay Yok Tan

  2. The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

    Chi Yung Jim

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hamid, A.R., Tan, P.Y. (2017). Urban Ecological Networks for Biodiversity Conservation in Cities. In: Tan, P., Jim, C. (eds) Greening Cities. Advances in 21st Century Human Settlements. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4113-6_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation