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China as a Non-Traditional Asian Donor

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Abstract

Chapter 4 examines the role of China as an increasingly important donor. Although China’s aid program began decades ago, it has recently become one of the largest donors. China is not a member of the “donor club,” so data on its aid are hard to find, and it operates according to its own rules. The first section of the chapter traces China’s move from aid recipient to donor. The second looks at the goals of the current aid policy. The third analyzes the characteristics of aid and its complementarity with foreign investment (FDI) and trade. The fourth examines the relationship between the aid program and domestic politics. The fifth studies the links between Chinese aid and the international and regional aid systems.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    An important new book on Chinese aid from an Asian perspective is Shimomura and Ohashi (2013).

  2. 2.

    On China and Africa, among others, see Taylor (2006, 2009), Alden (2007), Davies (2007), Rotberg (2008), Brautigam (2011), Shinn and Eisenman (2012), and Hanauer and Morris (2014).

  3. 3.

    FOCAC is similar to Japan’s TICAD, which was started in 1993.

  4. 4.

    On the controversies about Chinese aid, see Woods (2008) and Paulo and Reisen (2010).

  5. 5.

    South Korea also provided small amounts of aid to China. Between 1991 and 2008, China was always among South Korea’s top ten recipients, and for several years in this period it was the largest recipient. Nonetheless, the amounts were small from the Chinese perspective.

  6. 6.

    For a Chinese analysis of China’s experience as an aid recipient, see Zhou et al. (2015).

  7. 7.

    It does, however, need technical assistance that comes by way of foreign aid.

  8. 8.

    Li (2008) offers a relatively similar time scheme. He suggests three sub-periods: 1950–1973, 1974–1990, and 1991–2005. While the absolute amount of China’s aid—in current RMB—was largest in the third period, followed by the first with the second lagging, aid as a share of fiscal expenditure or of GNP show the first period with the highest share, followed by the second and then the third (Table 1).

  9. 9.

    See Goldman (1967, 46–47) for a list of China’s foreign aid recipients between 1950 and 1965. It includes 25 countries in Asia and Africa; also included are Cuba and Hungary.

  10. 10.

    This was seen very dramatically in the case of Costa Rica. In 2007, Costa Rica changed its diplomatic recognition to the PRC, and the country was rewarded with large quantities of resources ranging from the construction of various public works projects to a US$ 1 billion joint-venture refinery to one of the few FTAs that China has signed with Latin American nations. The hope is clearly that the demonstration effect of this resource flow will not be lost on the remaining 25 countries that recognize Taiwan. See Stallings (2016).

  11. 11.

    See Brautigam (2011) and Lum et al. (2009). Brautigam used published data from the Chinese government and extrapolations based on government-provided information. Lum et al. reported on a study by the Wagner School at NYU, whose data source was published information in recipient countries. In addition, as mentioned in the text, Brautigam took a narrow definition that is as near as possible to the OECD/DAC definition of ODA, while the Wagner School used a much broader definition of government-sponsored resource flows.

  12. 12.

    We built on Brautigam’s methodology. We updated the MOFCOM numbers, based on official data. The main difference was how to extrapolate the Eximbank concessional loans. We did it on the basis of the rate of increase in overall Eximbank loans for the period from 2005. Our results showed numbers for 2012 and 2013 that were lower than those of the original JICA-RI study, but very similar to their update.

  13. 13.

    The multilateral figure for 2013 was unusually large because of completing the capital increase for the World Bank’s 2010 shareholding realignment. For 2012, the figure was US$ 422 million, and for 2014 it was US$ 360 million.

  14. 14.

    The RMB-dollar exchange rate has varied dramatically over the period from 1950 to the present. It was fixed at RMB 2.5 to the dollar until the early 1970s, when it began to appreciate slightly. From the early 1980s to the mid-1990s, it depreciated steadily till reaching 8.3. In the last few years, under heavy international pressure, it appreciated to the current 6.5. Using annual exchange rates, the dollar figures cited in the text would vary.

  15. 15.

    Non-concessional loans are another large source of resources from China. The two main institutions that provide such loans are the Eximbank and the China Development Bank (CDB). Like the Eximbank, CDB began life in 1994 as a policy bank, but it now acts more like a commercial institution. Also like the Eximbank, no systematic information exists on CDB loans. On the CDB’s energy loans, see Downs (2011). For more general information on the bank, see Sanderson and Forsythe (2013).

  16. 16.

    Developing countries are defined here as East Asia, Latin America, and Africa. It should be noted that these figures are underestimates of unknown amounts. For example, in the case of Latin America, estimates are that actual figures for Chinese FDI are several times those included in the official statistics.

  17. 17.

    The category available is ASEAN, which includes most of the developing Asian countries we are following, but it also includes Singapore (and excludes Mongolia and North Korea).

  18. 18.

    This has been true in other regions as well. Well-known cases in Africa include Sudan and Zimbabwe, which have been internationally castigated for their poor human rights records. In Latin America, China has been particularly active in the countries that have been most anti-American (i.e., Argentina, Ecuador, and Venezuela).

  19. 19.

    Wang (2016) asks why Chinese private investment in North Korea continues when it is losing money. He says it is either because investors hope to recoup their losses or learn more about the market to participate in more lucrative ventures later.

  20. 20.

    In Vietnam, for example, the Economic and Commercial Counselor is in charge of six staff members who assist with aid, trade, FDI, and other activities (interview at Chinese Embassy, Hanoi, June 2013).

  21. 21.

    Given this dual function, there is debate about whether the concessional loans are really aid. This discussion goes back to the DAC definition of ODA and particularly the requirement that ODA be mainly for the benefit of the recipient country.

  22. 22.

    For example, the White Papers had to be approved by the State Council and were issued under its name.

  23. 23.

    The Eximbank does have three foreign representative offices in Paris, St. Petersburg, and Johannesburg. Asian loans are handled in Beijing.

  24. 24.

    In a discussion of foreign policy making in China, Jakobson and Knox (2010) say there are official channels through which firms are supposed to present suggestions. But important business executives use informal contacts with MOFCOM and others to lobby for their preferred policies and pet projects.

  25. 25.

    Jakobson and Knox (2010) say that, in general, public opinion has become more important in foreign policy making in China. They point to writing on the internet as an important new channel through which opinion can be expressed.

  26. 26.

    On the earlier period, see analyses of Johnston and Ross (1999) and Pearson (2006).

  27. 27.

    Participants say that the term “study group” was chosen to be non-threatening to any of the participants.

  28. 28.

    The World Bank’s China representative, well-known poverty expert David Dollar, expressed support.

  29. 29.

    See China-DAC Study Group (2011).

  30. 30.

    A new organization, the China International Development Research Network (CIDRN), was formed in 2013 by several of the people involved in the Study Group. The group has financing from MOFCOM and DFID. Among its first activities was an edited volume on “China and International Development” (Gu et al. 2014).

  31. 31.

    To get an idea of the scope and intent of the forum, see the closing address at the second meeting in 2011 by the Director General of the International Bureau of Japan’s Ministry of Finance. http://www.mof.go.jp/english/international_policy/oda/adf_houdou110601_1.pdf.

  32. 32.

    There is a rapidly growing literature on the AIIB. See, for example, Dollar (2015), Renard (2015), Callaghan and Hubbard (2016), Chin (2016), Griffith-Jones et al. (2016), and Wan (2016).

  33. 33.

    All of these funds came from the ADB’s commercial rate window (OCR); it does not receive concessional loans.

  34. 34.

    Mya (2007), Ishida (2008), and Zhu (2009) describe China’s history with the GMS. China’s Ministry of Foreign Relations has published several reports on China’s relations with GMS.

  35. 35.

    Lu (2016) discusses Chinese attempts to “improve GMS cooperation” by connecting the GMS to the Belt and Road.

  36. 36.

    Dialogue partners are non-member countries who are perceived as willing and able to make important contributions to ASEAN; there are currently ten: Australia, Canada, China, the EU, India, Japan, South Korea, New Zealand, Russia, and the United States.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA

    Barbara Stallings

  2. Graduate School of International Studies, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of)

    Eun Mee Kim

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Stallings, B., Kim, E.M. (2017). China as a Non-Traditional Asian Donor. In: Promoting Development. Development Cooperation and Non-Traditional Security in the Asia-Pacific. Palgrave, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3165-6_4

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