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Introduction: Toward a Better Understanding of Family Violence in Japan

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Book cover Family Violence in Japan

Abstract

Chapter 1 of this book, Family Violence in Japan: A Life Course Perspective, seeks to address five major issues:

  • The definition of family violence

  • A view of family violence as a social problem

  • A view of family violence from a life course perspective

  • Sociocultural characteristics which induce and/or suppress factors of family violence in Japan

  • The future of family violence studies in Japan

Let us summarize each issue briefly.

This anthology defines family violence as the use of abusive behavior to control and/or harm a family member or someone with whom they have an intimate relationship. The existence of violence in one’s family is a natural course of our life. We briefly discuss nine different forms of violence and 12 types of family violence. In this anthology, however, we will confine our discussion to four major types of family violence in Japan: child abuse, intimate partner violence (IPV), filial violence, and elder abuse.

Previous studies have shown that family violence is not just the breakdown of a person’s personality or morality but a socially learned family reaction. Now is the time for Japan to seek social interventions to alleviate the problem. We discuss three types of tactics, namely, reasoning, verbal aggression, and violence, by using conflict tactics scales (CTS) to measure their effectiveness.

A person can be both a victim and perpetrator of abusive conduct through their life, beginning with child abuse. Having learned that violence is acceptable, they may later continue as a victim or become an abuser themselves in the family, including child abuse, IPV, filial violence, and elder abuse. It is documented that family violence is transmitted from one generation to the other within the family. We must end this intergenerational transmission of family violence.

Japan appears to have a lower level of family violence than other countries, unless the violence is being hidden by respondents who are ashamed to admit to these actions. Assuming the family violence in Japan is less, why? Six major characteristics of Japanese society, culture, and personality are pointed out. They are the vertical social structure, the patriarchal-hierarchal family structure, group orientation, interdependence in human relations, giri-ninjyo, and the mind-to-mind Japanese style of communication.

Finally, for the future development of family violence studies in Japan, we would suggest two things. First, the field of study should be comprehensive rather than limited to some specific phase of life. Studies should consider a person’s entire life rather than looking at each type of family violence independently and segmentally. Second, the regional variation framework which comprises one of the essential components of Japanese society and culture should also be applied for the study of family violence in Japan. Do different regions have different problems?

It seems unrealistic to have a society without any family violence, at least in the immediate future. Nevertheless, such a utopia with no family violence in Japan could be realized if and only if the Japanese people try hard to establish it. It all comes from improving Japanese family relations. For this reason we should not limit our attention only to the Japanese people who are victimized, because it will not lead us far in resolving the issue. Instead, we must achieve a structural revision from both the micro-level of Japanese family and home and the macro-level of Japanese society as a whole simultaneously. Thus, a Japanese society with little family violence could be materialized by constructing better family relations and building public institutions more effectively.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For some examples of governmental agencies and/or bureaus publishing reports on various types of family violence in Japan, refer to Appendix 1.1 at the end of the current chapter. In addition, some examples of individual publications are as follows: child abuse – Fujino 2007; Hanada et al. 2007; Takeuchi et al. 2014, and Yoshimi 2012; IPV – Akazawa et al. 2011; Aono 2010; Kaino 2013; Ogawa 2012, and Okamoto 2012; filial violence – Futagami 2007; Hiroi and Kodama 2010; Ito 2012; Makino 2006; Matsuda 2006; Saio 2013; Yamada and Miyashita 2007, and Yamamoto 2014; and elder abuse – Hasegawa et al. 2009, Hatta et al. 2012, Hayashi 2010, Kato and Yabuki 2012, Kuroda et al. 2014, Soeda and Tsuchiya 2011, Taguchi 2013, Yamamoto 2010, and Yuhara 2010. Details of these publications are found in the References of the current chapter.

  2. 2.

    In the author’s opinion, however, there is not a major difference by “society” in viewing family violence. It is the author’s personal observation and opinion that among most US citizens, the violence is viewed as an individual defect of character. The author wishes that all the people regardless of societal differences could look upon it as Western sociologists do.

  3. 3.

    Since 1975, the Family Research Laboratory (FRL) has devoted itself primarily to understanding family violence and the impact of violence in families. As public and professional interest in family violence has grown, so has the need for more reliable knowledge. The FRL has tried to fill that need in a variety of ways: through comprehensive literature reviews, new theories, and methodologically sound studies. Researchers at the FRL pioneered many of the techniques that have enabled social scientists to estimate directly the scope of family violence. These efforts have brought international recognition to the FRL. http://cola.unh.edu/frl/about. Accessed 15 July 2015.

  4. 4.

    The author of this chapter lived in the United States for 15 years, from August 1970. Thus, she was in the midst of various social movements during the period. For example, she studied at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio, and at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, both of which were under the strong influence of the student revolt against the US involvement with the Vietnam War. She feels that these valuable experiences have been assets in her career as a sociologist.

  5. 5.

    LGBT stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. Social milieu to accept LGBT has been widened since the mid-2000s, especially in the Western societies, but not so much so in Japan yet (weblio Shingo Jijiyogo Jiten on LGBT [weblio New Dictionary of Current Topics]. http://www.weblio.jp/content/LGBT. Accessed 15 September 2014). Same-sex marriage in the United States became legal nationwide in June 2015, when the Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that state-level bans on same-sex marriage are unconstitutional (CNN 2015; New York Times 2015; Washington Post 2015). The US Supreme Court ruling may affect the Japanese counterpart. In fact, of the total 1741 municipalities throughout Japan, only two recognized same-sex partnerships as equivalent to marriage, Shibuya-ward (on March 31, 2015) and then followed by Setagaya-ward, another ward (on July 28, 2015), both in Tokyo (Japan Times 2015). These ward offices in Tokyo recently started issuing certificates recognizing same-sex partnerships as equivalent to legal marriages in October 2015 in Shibuya-ward and in November 2015 in Setagaya-ward. However, the Japanese Constitution, at present, recognizes marriage as between a male and a female only.

  6. 6.

    The question item “G. Cried” was not included in CTS. The reason for its inclusion in the survey questionnaire was due to the fact that at the time of pretesting, many respondents chose this item for their answers (Straus and Gelles 1990).

  7. 7.

    The essence of the field theory proposed by Yinger (1965) is that human behavior should be studied by four disciplines simultaneously, i.e., biology, psychology, cultural anthropology, and sociology, not only through the additive effects of these four disciplines independently but also more importantly by the interactive effects of them all simultaneously. Thus, human behavior is studied most appropriately through the multiplicative effects of these four disciplines combined. The unit of analysis is neither the individual nor the social structure, but the field within which they meet. There are multiple possibilities in each, and the behavioral outcome is determined by their mutual influence.

  8. 8.

    For detailed results and discussion of the surveys (from the first survey conducted in 1953 to the 13th survey conducted in 2013), refer to the following: http://www.ism.ac.jp/kokuminsei/page6/index.html. Accessed 31 October 2014.

  9. 9.

    This section is an excerpt from the report of the 13th Survey on the Japanese National Character by the Institute of Statistical Mathematics. For more detail, refer to the following website: http://www.ism.ac.jp/kokuminsei/page2/index.html. Accessed 17 November 2014.

  10. 10.

    It is subjective observations of the author that there are examples in which amae is valued in the West, specifically sports, where the team’s results are more important than any individual achievements.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Kyorin University, Tokyo, Japan

    Fumie Kumagai

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  1. Fumie Kumagai
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Correspondence to Fumie Kumagai .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Kyorin University, Tokyo, Japan

    Fumie Kumagai

  2. Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan

    Masako Ishii-Kuntz

Appendices

Appendix 1.1 Some Examples of Governmental Agencies and/or Bureaus Publishing Reports on Various Types of Family Violence in Japan

  1. (1)

    Child Abuse

  2. (2)

    Intimate Partner Violence

    • Gender Equality Bureau, Cabinet Office. (2015). White Paper on Gender Equality in Japan: 2015. http://www.gender.go.jp/about_danjo/whitepaper/h27/gaiyou/index.html Accessed 15 July 2015.

    • Gender Equality Bureau, Cabinet Office. (2008). Act on the Prevention of Violence from Spouse and Protection of Victims. http://www.gender.go.jp/e-vaw/law/nichiei.pdf. Accessed 15 July 2015.

    • Tokyo Metropolitan. Jakunensou ni okeru Kousaiaite karano Bouryoku ni kansuru Cyousa kekka [Investigation about the Violence from the Date in the Young Group]. http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/INET/CHOUSA/2013/02/60n2d200.htm. Accessed 15 July 2015.

    • Yokohama-shi Citizen Station Gender Equality Promotion Section (2009). Haigusya karano Bouryoku (DV) ni kansuru Anketocyousa oyobi Higaisya jittai cyousa (mensetsucyousa) Cyousakekka [Questionnaire Survey about the Violence (DV) by Spouses fact-finding (interview investigation) findings]. Yokohama-shi Citizen Vitality Promotion Station, Child Young People Station. http://www.city.yokohama.lg.jp/shimin/. Accessed 15 July 2015.

  3. (3)

    Filial Violence

  4. (4)

    Elder Abuse

Sources: Compiled by the author, as of July 16, 2015. All the URLs were accessed on July 15, 2015.

Appendix 1.2 Nine Forms of Violence and Abuse

  1. (1)

    Physical Violence

    Physical violence occurs when someone uses a part of their body or an object to control a person’s actions. Physical violence includes but is not limited to:

    • Using physical force which results in pain, discomfort, or injury

    • Hitting, pinching, hair pulling, arm twisting, strangling, burning, stabbing, punching, pushing, slapping, beating, shoving, kicking, choking, biting, force feeding, or any other rough treatment

    • Assault with a weapon or other objects

    • Threats with a weapon or object

    • Deliberate exposure to severe weather or inappropriate room temperatures

    • Murder

  2. (2)

    Sexual Violence

    Sexual violence occurs when a person is forced to unwillingly take part in sexual activity. Sexual violence includes but is not limited to:

    • Touching in a sexual manner without consent (i.e., kissing, grabbing, fondling)

    • Forced sexual intercourse

    • Forcing a person to perform sexual acts that may be degrading or painful

    • Beating sexual parts of the body

    • Forcing a person to view pornographic material; forcing participation in pornographic filming

    • Using a weapon to force compliance

    • Exhibitionism

    • Making unwelcome sexual comments or jokes; leering behavior

    • Withholding sexual affection

    • Denial of a person’s sexuality or privacy (watching)

    • Denial of sexual information and education

    • Humiliating, criticizing, or trying to control a person’s sexuality

    • Forced prostitution

    • Unfounded allegations of promiscuity and/or infidelity

    • Purposefully exposing the person to HIV-AIDS or other sexually transmitted infections

  3. (3)

    Emotional Violence

    Emotional violence occurs when someone says or does something to make a person feel stupid or worthless. Emotional violence includes but is not limited to:

    • Name-calling

    • Blaming all relationship problems on the person

    • Using silent treatment

    • Not allowing the person to have contact with family and friends

    • Destroying possessions

    • Jealousy

    • Humiliating or making fun of the person

    • Intimidating the person; causing fear to gain control

    • Threatening to hurt oneself if the person does not cooperate

    • Threatening to abandon the person

    • Threatening to have the person deported (if they are an immigrant)

  4. (4)

    Psychological Violence

    Psychological violence occurs when someone uses threats and causes fear in a person to gain control. Psychological violence includes but is not limited to:

    • Threatening to harm the person or her or his family if she or he leaves

    • Threatening to harm oneself

    • Threats of violence

    • Threats of abandonment

    • Stalking/criminal harassment

    • Destruction of personal property

    • Verbal aggression

    • Socially isolating the person

    • Not allowing access to a telephone

    • Not allowing a competent person to make decisions

    • Inappropriately controlling the person’s activities

    • Treating a person like a child or a servant

    • Withholding companionship or affection

    • Use of undue pressure to:

      • Sign legal documents

      • Not seek legal assistance or advice

      • Move out of the home

      • Make or change a legal will or beneficiary

      • Make or change an advance health-care directive

      • Give money or other possessions to relatives or other caregivers

      • Do things the person doesn’t want to do

  5. (5)

    Spiritual Violence

    Spiritual (or religious) violence occurs when someone uses a person’s spiritual beliefs to manipulate, dominate, or control the person. Spiritual violence includes but is not limited to:

    • Not allowing the person to follow her or his preferred spiritual or religious tradition

    • Forcing a spiritual or religious path or practice on another person

    • Belittling or making fun of a person’s spiritual or religious tradition, beliefs, or practices

    • Using one’s spiritual or religious position, rituals, or practices to manipulate, dominate, or control a person

  6. (6)

    Cultural Violence

    Cultural violence occurs when a person is harmed as a result of practices that are part of her or his culture, religion, or tradition. Cultural violence includes but is not limited to:

    • Committing “honor” or other crimes against women in some parts of the world, where women especially may be physically harmed, shunned, maimed, or killed for:

    • Falling in love with the “wrong” person

    • Seeking divorce

    • Infidelity; committing adultery

    • Being raped

    • Practicing witchcraft

    • Being older

    Cultural violence may take place in some of the following ways:

    • Lynching or stoning

    • Banishment

    • Abandonment of an older person at hospital by family

    • Female circumcision

    • Rape marriage

    • Sexual slavery

    • Murder

  7. (7)

    Verbal Abuse

    Verbal abuse occurs when someone uses language, whether spoken or written, to cause harm to a person. Verbal abuse includes but is not limited to:

    • Recalling a person’s past mistakes

    • Expressing negative expectations

    • Expressing distrust

    • Threatening violence against a person or her or his family members

    • Yelling

    • Lying

    • Name-calling

    • Insulting and swearing

    • Withholding important information

    • Unreasonably ordering around

    • Talking unkindly about death to a person

    • Telling a person she or he is worthless or nothing but trouble

  8. (8)

    Financial Abuse

    Financial abuse occurs when someone controls a person’s financial resources without the person’s consent or misuses those resources. Financial abuse includes but is not limited to:

    • Not allowing the person to participate in educational programs

    • Forcing the person to work outside the home

    • Refusing to let the person work outside the home or attend school

    • Controlling the person’s choice of occupation

    • Illegally or improperly using a person’s money, assets, or property

    • Acts of fraud; pulling off a scam against a person

    • Taking funds from the person without permission for one’s own use

    • Misusing funds through lies and trickery and controlling or withholding money

    • Not allowing access to bank accounts, savings, or other income

    • Giving an allowance and then requiring justification for all money spent

    • Persuading the person to buy a product or give away money

    • Selling the house, furnishings, or other possessions without permission

    • Forging a signature on pension checks or legal documents

    • Misusing a power of attorney, an enduring power of attorney, or legal guardianship

    • Not paying bills

    • Opening mail without permission

    • Living in a person’s home without paying fairly for expenses

    • Destroying personal property

  9. (9)

    Neglect

    Neglect occurs when someone has the responsibility to provide care or assistance for you but does not. Neglect includes, but is not limited to, the following:

    • Failing to meet the needs of a person who is unable to meet those needs alone

    • Abandonment in a public setting

    • Not remaining with a person who needs help

    • Physical neglect:

    • Disregarding necessities of daily living, including failing to provide adequate or necessary:

      • Nutrition or fluids

      • Shelter

      • Clean clothes and linen

      • Social companionship and failing to turn a bedridden person frequently to prevent stiffness and bedsores

    • Medical neglect:

    • Ignoring special dietary requirements

    • Not providing needed medications

    • Not calling a physician; not reporting or taking action on a medical condition, injury, or problem

    • Not being aware of the possible negative effects of medications

Source: Violence Prevention Initiative, Newfoundland Labrador, Canada (2015), and compiled by the author.

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Kumagai, F. (2016). Introduction: Toward a Better Understanding of Family Violence in Japan. In: Kumagai, F., Ishii-Kuntz, M. (eds) Family Violence in Japan. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0057-7_1

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