Abstract
Increasingly, non-expert users engage with technology applications to collect data about their external environment or their own physical conditions. The practice is labelled ‘Citizen Science’, meaning participatory initiatives aimed at including laymen in knowledge production regarding complex issues, such as environmental health risks (e.g. radiation and air pollution, as illustrated by the cases presented). Citizen Science finds its justification in a number of rights, such as the citizens’ right to live in a healthy environment and the right to environmental information. Yet the legitimacy of these initiatives is often challenged as they may not follow scientific standards and expert opinion. Despite the fact that the potential of Citizen Science to provide new evidence to risk governance has been demonstrated in a number of cases, e.g. remarkably in the Safecast radiation monitoring case, the validity of Citizen Science-produced data is still questioned. One solution for enhancing the scientific robustness of such grassroots initiatives would be to have them regulated by scientific standards. However, regulating Citizen Science may deprive it of its ‘grassroots’ nature. An alternative would be the application of ‘community standards’, namely norms ensuring the validity of the data produced by the citizen scientists but developed ‘from below’, from within the community itself. The chapter will explore the two alternatives and verify whether community standards could be accepted as a way of regulating Citizen Science, in order to ultimately improve its scientific robustness.
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Notes
- 1.
Safecast is a global volunteer-centered Citizen Science project launched after the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant disaster and aimed at making freely available data about radiation in Japan and beyond. It is based on data collected by lay people using the Safecast bGeigie Nano, a portable radiation detector. For the Safecast platform, see https://blog.safecast.org/about/. Last accessed 6 August 2018. Hemmi and Graham 2014.
- 2.
The interviews and survey have been performed as part of the ongoing Ph.D. research of the author (start date September 2017, end date September 2020). Ethical clearance for the data collection has been granted by Tilburg Law School (TLS-ERB #2018/01 issued on 12 June 2018).
- 3.
- 4.
Citizen Science is increasingly investigated from the academic scholarship and from organizations both as a practice for contributing to science and as a phenomenon impacting on data collection practices, on citizen behaviour, on project design and management and, eventually, also on policy-making Hallow et al. 2015; Berti Suman and Van Geenhuizen (forthcoming).
- 5.
http://www.birds.cornell.edu/page.aspx?pid=1664#. Last accessed 26 August 2018.
- 6.
Irwin 1995.
- 7.
Kullenberg and Kasperowski 2016, p. 1; Berti Suman and Van Geenhuizen (forthcoming).
- 8.
Van Brussel and Huyse 2018; Berti Suman and Van Geenhuizen (forthcoming).
- 9.
BSCS Science Learning is an independent non-profit dedicated to transforming science education.
- 10.
Edelson et al. 2018. Report available at https://bscs.org/tech-report/2018-1. Last accessed 26 August 2018.
- 11.
Van Brussel and Huyse 2018.
- 12.
Foody et al. 2016.
- 13.
Van Brussel and Huyse 2018, p. 1.
- 14.
- 15.
BSCS Science Learning (2018) Press release: New BSCS Report Presents Guidelines for Designing Citizen Science Projects that Merge Science and Education. Available at https://media.bscs.org/tech-report/2018-1/bscs_citscireport_release.pdf. Last accessed 12 August 2018, p. 1; Edelson et al. 2018.
- 16.
Bijker et al. 2009.
- 17.
Wiggins et al. 2013. Available at http://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/toolkit/steps/accept/DataONE-PPSR-DataManagementGuide.pdf. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 18.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/g5-final.pdf. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 19.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/vol_qapp.pdf. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 20.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-06/documents/r2-final.pdf. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 21.
Chapman 2005.
- 22.
https://easin.jrc.ec.europa.eu/easin/NewsAndEvents/DetailEvents/5f26e136-d914-413b-a851-393c26b25f89. Last accessed 3 January 2019. The author participated in the workshop.
- 23.
https://www.fs.fed.us/working-with-us/citizen-science/resources. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 24.
The Clean Water Team (CWT) is the citizen monitoring program of the State Water Resources Control Board of California. The CWT is a part of the Surface Water Ambient Monitoring Program (SWAMP).
- 25.
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/swamp/docs/qapp/bioassessment_qapp.pdf. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 26.
Berti Suman 2018a.
- 27.
Becker et al. 2013, p. 1.
- 28.
Berti Suman 2018b.
- 29.
Bäckstrand 2004, p. 24.
- 30.
Ibid., p. 27.
- 31.
Ibid., pp. 30–35.
- 32.
The first mention of the right to science in an official document was in 2012, when Farida Shaheed, Special Rapporteur for the United Nations, submitted a report to the UN Human Rights Council on the scope and application of the right to science. See Shaheed 2012.
- 33.
Balestrini 2018.
- 34.
Berti Suman and Pierce (forthcoming).
- 35.
Schade et al. 2017.
- 36.
See footnote 1 above.
- 37.
Cervone and Hultquist 2018.
- 38.
See https://blog.safecast.org/2018/08/rebuttal-of-calibration-of-safecast-dose-rate-measurements-by-cervone-and-hultquist/. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 39.
Parrish et al. 2018.
- 40.
Ibid., p. 1.
- 41.
Ibid.
- 42.
Ibid.
- 43.
Ibid.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
Virtual discussion with Jean Paul Close, co-founder of AiREAS, on 15 October 2018. For more information, see Sect. 3.1.
- 46.
In-person discussion with an expert on Citizen Science at the EC JRC, Ispra, Italy, on 14 May 2018. More information in Sect. 3.1.
- 47.
Citizen Sensing can be considered a sub-set of the broader notion of Citizen Science, focused on lay people monitoring external factors through sensors and spreading the information on networks/visual representations of the collected data. More information in Berti Suman 2018a.
- 48.
Making Sense Project 2018, p. 80.
- 49.
See Sect. 3.1 for more details.
- 50.
In general, the sample includes people over the age of 20 and below the age of 70, mostly male participants, of diverse nationality and language, but primarily from the Netherlands, Japan and the US.
- 51.
AiREAS is an initiative launched in the city of Eindhoven aimed to create an intelligent, real time measurement system through which anyone could check the status of the quality of the local air at any time in their direct vicinity. For the AiREAS website and platform, see http://www.aireas.com/welcome-to-aireas/. Last accessed 27 August 2018.
- 52.
Jasanoff 1987.
- 53.
Parsons et al. 2011, p. 47.
- 54.
Parsons et al. 2011, p. 47.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the organizers of the Ph.D. Colloquium that created a highly stimulating venue for discussion. A special acknowledgment goes to the Citizen Science community which enthusiastically responded to my research, especially the Safecast and AiREAS project coordinators and volunteers. Lastly, I sincerely thank the Brocher Foundation, Geneva, which hosted the finalization of this piece.
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Berti Suman, A. (2019). Between Freedom and Regulation: Investigating Community Standards for Enhancing Scientific Robustness of Citizen Science. In: Reins, L. (eds) Regulating New Technologies in Uncertain Times. Information Technology and Law Series, vol 32. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-279-8_3
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