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Nationality Based Playing Quotas and the International Transfer System Post-Bosman

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The Legacy of Bosman

Part of the book series: ASSER International Sports Law Series ((ASSER))

Abstract

The European Court’s ruling in the Bosman case resulted in the removal of post-contract restrictions on players moving to new clubs and the abolition of nationality quotas in so far as they impacted on players with EU nationality. This chapter charts the response to the Bosman ruling within football, with respect to the current FIFA rules on international transfers, and the continuing use of player quotas for non-EU players. The central focus of the chapter is the reintroduction of player quotas within Europe as a result of UEFA’s ‘home grown player rule’. We also discuss the proposal by FIFA for a 6 + 5 rule which, if ever implemented, would apply throughout the world. Our central contentions are that both the FIFA and UEFA rules on player quotas are incompatible with EU law, as is the current FIFA transfer system. The chapter concludes by suggesting that the best mechanism for resolving these issues lies in the adoption of the methodology of reflexive legal regulation using the method of EU social law as a paradigm.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Case C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association and others v. Bosman and others, ECLI:EU:C:1995:463.

  2. 2.

    This was previously Article 39 of the EC Treaty and at the time of the Bosman ruling was Article 48 of the EEC Treaty.

  3. 3.

    Blanpain and Inston 1996.

  4. 4.

    Indeed, similar proposals have been mooted in other team sports. See FIVB ready to fight EU labor laws on ‘4 + 2’ player rule. www.fivb.org/EN/ePublications/WorldVolleyNews/WV_News_26_E.pdf. Accessed 25 September 2015.

  5. 5.

    Blanpain and Inston 1996.

  6. 6.

    For background information in relation to the adoption of new international transfer rules by FIFA, see Caiger and O’Leary 1999; Pearson 2015, pp. 220–238; Tsatsas, Anelka’s costly walk-out case has a hole in it. The Guardian, 23 July 1999; Gardiner and Welch 2007. On the applicability of Article 39, see Report from the Commission to the European Council of 10 December 1999, COM (1999) 644 with a view to safeguarding current sports structures and maintaining the social function of sport within the Community framework - The Helsinki Report on Sport; See also European Parliament Report of 18 July 2000, A5-0208/2000 on the Commission report to the European Council with a view to safeguarding current sports structures and maintaining the social function of sport within the Community framework – The Helsinki Report on Sport. For reference to the Commission’s views on the compatibility of the transfer system with EU law, see Speech by Mrs. Viviane Reding of 13 March 2001, 01/117.

  7. 7.

    FIFA Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Players. http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/66/98/97/regulationsstatusandtransfer_en_1210.pdf. Accessed 28 September 2015. Although the rules do not cover domestic transfer, some of the rules are required to be transposed into domestic systems. Examples include permitting a player to terminate a contract for sporting just cause, and to negotiate a transfer to a new club in a different national association during the last six months of his current contract.

  8. 8.

    Sporting sanctions include a ban on a player playing for his new club for up to four months. The maximum ban that can be imposed in 12 months, but this only applies where the club has induced the player to act in breach of his employment contract.

  9. 9.

    CAS 2007/A/1298/1299/1300 Wigan Athletic FC/Heart of Midlothian/Webster.

  10. 10.

    CAS 2008/A/1519–1520 Matuzalem/Shaktar Donetsk/Real Zaragoza/FIFA.

  11. 11.

    See CAS 2009/A/ 1880 Essam El-Hadaray v FIFA & Al-Ahly Sporting Club. For further discussion, see Parrish 2015.

  12. 12.

    Players’ union Fifpro to take transfer system to European courts. The Guardian, 17 December 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/football/2013/dec/17/players-union-fifpro-transfer-system-european-courts. Accessed 8 September 2015; Football transfer system must change, says world players’ union. BBC Sport, 17 December 2013. http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25418135. Accessed 8 September 2015. For details of the formal complaint lodged in 2015, see http://www.fifpro.org/en/news/fifpro-takes-legal-action-against-fifa-transfer-system. Accessed 8 September 2015.

  13. 13.

    Report by the KEAN European Affairs and the Centre for the Law and Economics of Sport of January 2013, the Economic and Legal Aspects of Transfers of Players. http://ec.europa.eu/sport/library/documents/cons-study-transfers-final-rpt.pdf. Accessed 21 October 2015. For further in-depth critiques of the FIFA transfer rules, see Parrish 2015; see Pearson 2015, pp. 220–238.

  14. 14.

    Case C-13/76 Gaetano Donà v Mario Mantero, ECLI:EU:C:1976:115.

  15. 15.

    For more details, see Van den Bogaert 2005.

  16. 16.

    Opinion of Advocate General Lenz in Case C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association and others v. Bosman and others, ECLI:EU:C:1995:293, para 132.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., para 135.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., para 137, support for this view was found as Advocate General Lenz argued in the Walrave judgment that the Court was of the opinion that the prohibition of discrimination under Article 48 does not affect ‘the composition of sport teams, in particular national teams’. In Donà, on the other hand, it held that that prohibition was not infringed if foreign players were excluded ‘from participation in certain matches for reasons which are not of an economic nature, which relate to the particular nature and context of such matches and are thus of sporting interest only, such as, for example, matches between national teams from different countries’.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., para 141.

  20. 20.

    Ibid., para 143.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., para 141.

  22. 22.

    Ibid.

  23. 23.

    Ibid.

  24. 24.

    Ibid., para 147.

  25. 25.

    Case C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association and others v. Bosman and others, ECLI:EU:C:1995:463, para 107.

  26. 26.

    See García B in this book for further analysis of this commodification.

  27. 27.

    See Colucci M (2008) Quota For Foreign Football Players allowed to Play in a Club: a Comparative Analysis at National Level. Available at https://www.idmarch.org/document/Fu%C3%9Fball-Bundesliga/3IV7-show/QUOTA+FOR+FOREIGN+FOOTBALL+PLAYERS+ALLOWED+TO+PLAY+IN+A+CLUB+A+COMPARATIVE+ANALYSIS+AT+NATIONAL+LEVEL+%28Updated+to+30+of+May+2008%29. Accessed on 28 September 2015.

  28. 28.

    C-438/00 Deutscher Handballbund eV v Maros Kolpak, ECLI:EU:C:2003:255.

  29. 29.

    Case C-265/03, Igor Simutenkov v Ministerio de Educación y Cultura and Real Federación Española de Fútbol, ECLI:EU:C:2005:213.

  30. 30.

    For more, see Boyes 2005. Note a stricter interpretation by the EU Commission of the Cotonou Agreement has led to narrower work permit criteria based on need for past international record of recipients. See Brett O, ECB wins overseas player battle. BBC Sport, 26 October 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/counties/8325975.stm. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  31. 31.

    Boyes 2003, p. 72; Hendrickx 2003, p. 12; Van den Bogaert 2004, p. 267.

  32. 32.

    Lanfranchi and Taylor 2001.

  33. 33.

    See the current UEFA Regulations for the Champions League Competition. http://www.uefa.com/multimediafiles/download/regulations/uefa/others/82/68/51/826851_download.pdf. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  34. 34.

    Fifa backs Blatter on quota plan. BBC Sport, 30 May 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/7421348.stm. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  35. 35.

    Professional Football Players’ Observatory (PFPO), Annual Review of the European Football Players. http://www.football-observatory.com. Accessed 28 September 2015. This research identified that European wide, non-European players now represent 50 % of the total number of foreign players). See also ‘Fewer club-trained players, more expatriate footballers in the big five European leagues 2009’. http://www.fifa.com/world-match-centre/news/newsid/109/649/7/index.html. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  36. 36.

    Case C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association and others v. Bosman and others, ECLI:EU:C:1995:463, para 145.

  37. 37.

    This argument is fundamentally the basis of recent proposals found in the Report of the FA Chairman’s England Commission of May 2014. For a more detailed analysis, see Winnie 2014.

  38. 38.

    Huxtable 2008.

  39. 39.

    Case C-265/03 Igor Simutenkov V Abogado del Estado, Real Federacion Espanola de Futbol and Ministerio Fiscal ECLI:EU:C:2005:213, involved a Russian national playing professional football in Spain, where the CJEU ruled that he was protected by a non-discriminatory provision contained in an agreement on partnership and cooperation signed between the EU and the Russian Federation in 1994.

  40. 40.

    Backe Madsen and Johansson 2008.

  41. 41.

    University of Liverpool and Edge Hill University (2013) Study on the Assessment of UEFA’s Home-Grown Player Rule. Study for the European Commission EAC/07/2012.

  42. 42.

    Yes in principle to 6 + 5 rule. FIFA.com, 5 February 2008. http://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/news/y=2008/m=2/news=yes-principle-rule-684707.html. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  43. 43.

    The English Premier League has been criticised on squad sizes operated by many clubs, e.g. it is reported in 2008–2009 season, Liverpool FC had a first team squad of 62 players, see Jackson J, Uefa slam ‘ridiculous’ Big Four squad sizes. The Guardian, 29 March 2009. http://www.theguardian.com/football/2009/mar/29/uefa-liverpool-squad-sizes-premier-league. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  44. 44.

    BBC sport reported that the FIFA congress in June 2010 decided to abandon the proposal, see Fifa scraps plans for ‘home-grown’ player rule. BBC Sport, 10 June 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/8733164.stm. Accessed 28 September 2015. However, there has been no official confirmation of this by FIFA or indeed by other interested parties such as FIFPRo.

  45. 45.

    Sepp Blatter urges Europe to back his ‘6 plus 5’ local talent rule. ESPN FC, 12 August 2015.

    http://www.espnfc.co.uk/fifa-world-cup/story/2561968/sepp-blatter-urges-europe-to-revive-his-6-plus-5-rule. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  46. 46.

    FIFA Congress supports objectives of 6 + 5. FIFA.com, 30 May 2008. www.fifa.com/about-fifa/news/y=2008/m=5/news=fifa-congress-supports-objectives-783657.html. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  47. 47.

    UK All Party Parliamentary Football Group, English Football and its Governance. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmselect/cmcumeds/writev/792/fg83.htm. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  48. 48.

    Mourinho voices support for FIFA’s “6 + 5” rule. ESPN FC, 30 May 2009. http://www.espnfc.com/story/632412. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  49. 49.

    Case C-13/76 Gaetano Donà v Mario Mantero, ECLI:EU:C:1976:115.

  50. 50.

    Boucher 2007, pp. 18–19; Anderson 2009; Majani 2009, pp. 19–25; Williams and Haffner 2008, pp. 1017–1019.

  51. 51.

    Expert Opinion by the Institute for European Affairs of 24 Ocober 2008, regarding the Compatability of the “6 + 5 Rule” within European Community Law.

  52. 52.

    Arnaut J (2006) Independent European Sport Review, UK Presidency of the EU 2005.

  53. 53.

    Case C-519/04 P David Meca-Medina and Igor Majcen v. Commission, ECLI:EU:C:2006:492; Case C-49/07 Motosykletistiki Omospondia Ellados NPID (MOTOE) v Elliniko Dimosio, ECLI:EU:C:2008:376.

  54. 54.

    For further discussion, see Weatherill 2006, pp. 647, 652, 657; Weatherill 2009.

  55. 55.

    Case C-283/99 Commission v Italy, ECLI:EU:C:2001:307.

  56. 56.

    Case 120/78 Rewe-Zentrale AG v Bundesmonopolverwaltung für Branntwein, ECLI:EU:C:1979:42.

  57. 57.

    Conzelmann 2008, p. 26, who cites Case C-2/90 Commission of the European Communities v Kingdom of Belgium (Wallonian Garbage), ECLI:EU:C:1992:310 and Case C-379/98 PreussenElektra v. Schleswag AG, ECLI:EU:C:2001:160 in support of this position.

  58. 58.

    Case C-438/05 International Transport Workers’ Federation and Finnish Seamen’s Union v. Viking Line ABP and OÜ Viking Line Eesti, ECLI:EU:C:2007:772.

  59. 59.

    Case C-341/05 Laval un Partneri Ltd v Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundet, Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundets avdelning 1, Byggettan and Svenska Elektrikerförbundet, ECLI:EU:C:2007:809.

  60. 60.

    For a thorough discussion of these cases, see Davies 2008, pp. 126–148.

  61. 61.

    Expert Opinion by the Institute for European Affairs of 24 October 2008, regarding the Compatability of the “6 + 5 Rule” within European Community Law, p. 136.

  62. 62.

    Commission White Paper of 11 July 2007, COM (2007) 391 final - White Paper on Sport, para 4.2; re-affirmed in the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 18 January 2011, COM(2011) 12 final Developing the European Dimension in Sport. However note the continued interest of restrictions of access to individual competitions within Member States for non-nationals. See T.M.C. Asser Instituut, Edge Hill University and Leiden University (2010) Study on the Equal Treatment of Non-Nationals in Individual Sports Competitions NO. EAC/19/2009.

  63. 63.

    This test was first formulated by the House of Lords in James v Eastleigh Borough Council [1990] 2 AC 751.

  64. 64.

    UK All Party Parliamentary Football Group, English Football and its Governance. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmselect/cmcumeds/writev/792/fg83.htm. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  65. 65.

    See the principle of proportionality as propounded by the CJEU in Case 170/84 Bilka-Kaufhaus Gmbh v Weber von Hartz, ECLI:EU:C:1986:204.

  66. 66.

    For current position, see https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/uk-visas-and-immigration. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  67. 67.

    For FIFPro’s view on the 6 + 5 rule and the home grown players rule, see http://www.fifpro.org/en/?mod=one&id=16627. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  68. 68.

    Joined Cases 117/76 and 16/77 Albert Ruckdeschel & Co. and Hansa-Lagerhaus Ströh & Co. v Hauptzollamt Hamburg-St. Annen; Diamalt AG v Hauptzollamt Itzehoe, ECLI:EU:C:1977:160.

  69. 69.

    Conzelmann 2008.

  70. 70.

    Miettinen and Parrish 2007.

  71. 71.

    UEFA, Regulations of the UEFA Champions League 2008/2009. http://www.uefa.com/multimediafiles/download/regulations/uefa/others/70/22/60/702260_download.pdf. Accessed 28 September 2015. See also Geey D (2014) UEFA and its Amended Home Grown Player Rule’ on impact of Financial Fair Play Rules on makeup and size of playing squad. www.danielgeey.com/uefa-and-its-amended-home-grown-player-rule. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  72. 72.

    Clubs vote for ‘home-grown’ rule. BBC Sport, 18 December 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/7789808.stm. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  73. 73.

    Conn D, Home grown doesn’t mean English but rule will help. The Guardian, 2 September 2010. Premier League squads may be up to 25 senior players and must include no more than 17 players who are not home grown. A player is home grown if he has spent 3 seasons with any English or Welsh club. However, there are no restrictions on the number of players in a squad below the age of 21.

  74. 74.

    Case C-55/94 Gebhard v Consiglio dell’Ordine degli Avvocati e Procuratori di Milano, ECLI:EU:C:1995:411; [1996] 1 CMLR 603.

  75. 75.

    Case 170/84 Bilka-Kaufhaus Gmbh v Weber von Hartz, ECLI:EU:C:1986:204.

  76. 76.

    For a comprehensive discussion of applying these principles to the home-grown player rule, see Downward et al. 2014, pp. 493–510.

  77. 77.

    European Parliament resolution of 29 March 2007, (2006/2130(INI)) on the future of professional football in Europe, p. 34.

  78. 78.

    Arnaut J (2006) Independent European Sport Review, UK Presidency of the EU 2005, para 6.58.

  79. 79.

    Ibid., para 6.59.

  80. 80.

    Commission White Paper of 11 July 2007, COM (2007) 391 final - White Paper on Sport, action 9 of the Pierre de Coubertin Action Plan, p. 6.

  81. 81.

    Commission Press Release of 28 May 2008, IP/08/807 UEFA’s rules on home-grown players receive green light from the Commission. http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-08-807_en.htm. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  82. 82.

    University of Liverpool and Edge Hill University (2013) Study on the Assessment of UEFA’s Home-Grown Player Rule. Study for the European Commission EAC/07/2012.

  83. 83.

    Ibid., para 6.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., para 11.

  85. 85.

    Ibid.

  86. 86.

    Uefa introduces tough penalties for spendthrift clubs. BBC Sport, 27 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/8709871.stm. Accessed 28 September 2015. It should be noted that the EU Report on the transfer system also calls for full implementation of UEFA’s Financial Fair Play rule along with stronger ‘solidarity mechanisms’ to enhance youth development and the protection of minors.

  87. 87.

    University of Liverpool and Edge Hill University (2013) Study on the Assessment of UEFA’s Home-Grown Player Rule. Study for the European Commission EAC/07/2012.

  88. 88.

    Case C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association and others v. Bosman and others, ECLI:EU:C:1995:463, para 233.

  89. 89.

    Lynam 2009.

  90. 90.

    Conn D, Clubs leave lost youth behind as academies fail English talent. The Guardian, 9 September 2009. http://www.theguardian.com/football/david-conn-inside-sport-blog/2009/sep/09/chelsea-fifa-premier-league-academies. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  91. 91.

    Fort and Quirk 1995, pp. 1265–1299; Harris 2002, p. 120.

  92. 92.

    Uefa introduces tough penalties for spendthrift clubs. BBC Sport, 27 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/8709871.stm. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  93. 93.

    Miettinen and Parrish 2008.

  94. 94.

    Case C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association and others v. Bosman and others, ECLI:EU:C:1995:463, paras 145–146.

  95. 95.

    The Spanish national, Cesc Fabregas, whilst he played for Arsenal can be cited as an illustration. The link therefore between being a home grown player and being eligible for the national side is not certain. Conversely, and somewhat ironically, some nationally eligible players, such as the former English international, Owen Hargreaves, who was an apprentice player at Bayern Munchen, are not ‘home grown players’.

  96. 96.

    Note recent CAS case concerning the upholding of FIFA Players’ Status Committee judgment against the Danish FA and FC for registering minor players from Nigeria—CAS 2008/A/1485 FC Midtjylland v. FIFA; See also Backe Madsen and Johansson 2008.

  97. 97.

    Scott M and Gibson O, Fifa cracks down on child transfers. The Guardian, 5 September 2005. http://www.theguardian.com/football/2009/sep/05/uefa-fifa-child-footballer-transfers. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  98. 98.

    FIFA Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Players. http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/66/98/97/regulationsstatusandtransfer_en_1210.pdf. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  99. 99.

    Scott M, Chelsea facing legal threat over signing boy of 11. The Guardian, 5 September 2009. http://www.theguardian.com/football/2009/sep/05/chelsea-legal-threat-alleged-player-poaching. Accessed 28 September 2015. Chelsea FC were under FIFA imposed transfer ban over Chelsea’s illegal recruitment of the teenage forward Gaël Kakuta from Lens, overturned by agreement between parties before formal appeal hearing by CAS.

  100. 100.

    For further details see, http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/regulations_on_the_status_and_transfer_of_players_en_33410.pdf. Accessed 28 September 2015.

  101. 101.

    Spanish Basketball clubs call for reform after EC Opinion. World Sport Law Report, April 2014. http://www.e-comlaw.com/world-sports-law-report/article_template.asp?ID=1644. Accessed 28 October 2015.

  102. 102.

    Ibid.

  103. 103.

    The origin of this term lies in legal sociology, and its essence is that intervention through external regulation should both reflect the norms established by those historically involved in the internal regulation of the activities in question and impose modifications to those norms which can be enforced by legal means. Our arguments are fully elaborated in Gardiner and Welch 2007. See also Branco-Martins R (2003) European Sport’s First Collective Labour Agreement EFFC, p. 1. Available at http://www.worldcat.org/title/european-sports-first-collective-labour-agreement/oclc/717822012?referer=di&ht=edition. Accessed 28 September 2015; Gardiner et al. 2009; Downward et al. 2014, pp. 506–507 on the value of using social dialogue.

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  1. Leeds Beckett University, City Campus, Leeds, LS1 3HE, UK

    Simon Gardiner

  2. University of Portsmouth, Richmond Building, Portland Street, Portsmouth, PO1 3DE, UK

    Roger Welch

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    Antoine Duval

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    Ben Van Rompuy

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Gardiner, S., Welch, R. (2016). Nationality Based Playing Quotas and the International Transfer System Post-Bosman. In: Duval, A., Van Rompuy, B. (eds) The Legacy of Bosman. ASSER International Sports Law Series. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-120-3_4

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-120-3_4

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