Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Implantable Brain Interface: High-Density Microelectrode Array for Neural Recording

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Smart Sensors for Health and Environment Monitoring

Part of the book series: KAIST Research Series ((KAISTRS))

  • 1717 Accesses

Abstract

During the past decades, the use of intracortical microelectrode arrays for brain–computer interface has increased due to the high spatial and temporal resolutions compared with the noninvasive methods such as electroencephalogram (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Recently, it was also reported that the intracortical microelectrode was implanted to the human brain for the purpose of controlling a robot arm. Although the invasive method with the microelectrode may have the safety and the ethical issues, it is undoubtable that the microelectrode array can provide the most precise and effective means to directly record and modulate the neural activity. To date, a variety of multichannel microelectrodes penetrating mammalian nerve tissues have been proposed with respect to shapes, materials, fabrication methods, and so forth. Among the various types, the silicon-based microelectrodes array has gained the biggest technical advances as well as the clinical applications. Despite the large amount of advance in research, however, the clinical use of the intracortical microelectrode arrays has not been realized mostly due to the failure of functionality for long-term applications. It is believed that the major failure mode of the microelectrode arrays is the brain tissue reaction against the implanted electrodes. Since the glial encapsulation acts as an electrical insulation layer around the electrodes, the neuronal signals cannot be recorded via the electrodes. In order to overcome this problem, various strategies have been attempted including the electrode design optimization, the flexible microelectrodes and the drug delivery to suppress the tissue responses. In this chapter, the technical advances for the high-density microelectrode arrays are reviewed and the various strategies are discussed to enable the clinical use of the intracortical microelectrode arrays for brain–computer interface as well as the treatment of brain disorders.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Burkholder DB, Sulc V, Hoffman EM, Cascino GD, Britton JW, So EL, Marsh WR, Meyer FB, Van Gompel JJ, Giannini C, Wass CT, Watson RE Jr, Worrell GA (2014) Interictal scalp electroencephalography and intraoperative electrocorticography in magnetic resonance imaging-negative temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. JAMA Neurol 71:702

    Google Scholar 

  2. Nielsen HB (2014) Systematic review of near-infrared spectroscopy determined cerebral oxygenation during non-cardiac surgery. Front Physiol 5:93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Tewarie P, Hillebrand A, Van Dellen E, Schoonheim MM, Barkhof F, Polman CH, Beaulieu C, Gong G, Van Dijk BW, Stam CJ (2014) Structural degree predicts functional network connectivity: a multimodal resting-state fMRI and MEG study. Neuroimage 97:296

    Google Scholar 

  4. Vakalopoulos C (2014) The EEG as an index of neuromodulator balance in memory and mental illness. Front Neurosci 8:63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Schuz A, Palm G (1989) Density of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex of the mouse. J Comp Neurol 286:442–455

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Simeral JD, Kim SP, Black MJ, Donoghue JP, Hochberg LR (2011) Neural control of cursor trajectory and click by a human with tetraplegia 1000 days after implant of an intracortical microelectrode array. J Neural Eng 8:025027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Buzsaki G (2004) Large-scale recording of neuronal ensembles. Nat Neurosci 7:446–451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Strumwasser F (1958) Long-term recording’ from single neurons in brain of unrestrained mammals. Science 127:469–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Carette B (1978) A new method of manufacturing multi-barrelled micropipettes with projecting recording barrel. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 44:248–250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Lehew G, Nicolelis MAL (2008) State-of-the-art microwire array design for chronic neural recordings in behaving animals. Methods Neural Ensemble Recordings 2:361

    Google Scholar 

  11. Stice P, Muthuswamy J (2009) Assessment of gliosis around moveable implants in the brain. J Neural Eng 6:046004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Wise KD, Angell JB, Starr A (1970) An integrated-circuit approach to extracellular microelectrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 17:238–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Starr A, Wise KD, Csongradi J (1973) An evaluation of photoengraved microelectrodes for extracellular single-unit recording. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 20:291–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Pochay P, Wise KD, Allard LF, Rutledge LT (1979) A multichannel depth probe fabricated using electron-beam lithography. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 26:199–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Yoon TH, Hwang EJ, Shin DY, Park SI, Oh SJ, Jung SC, Shin HC, Kim SJ (2000) A micromachined silicon depth probe for multichannel neural recording. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 47:1082–1087

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Cheung K, Lee G, Djupsund K, Dan Y, Lee LP (2000) A new neural probe using SOI wafers with topological interlocking mechanisms. In: 1st Annual international IEEE-EMBS special topic conference on microtechnologies in medicine and biology, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  17. Bement SL, Wise KD, Anderson DJ, Najafi K, Drake KL (1986) Solid-state electrodes for multichannel multiplexed intracortical neuronal recording. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 33:230–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Ji J, Najafi K, Wise KD (1991) A low-noise demultiplexing system for active multichannel microelectrode arrays. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 38:75–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Wise KD (2005) Silicon microsystems for neuroscience and neural prostheses. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag 24:22–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Hoogerwerf AC, Wise KD (1994) A three-dimensional microelectrode array for chronic neural recording. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 41:1136–1146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Campbell PK, Jones KE, Huber RJ, Horch KW, Normann RA (1991) A silicon-based, three-dimensional neural interface: manufacturing processes for an intracortical electrode array. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 38:758–768

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Normann RA, Warren DJ, Ammermuller J, Fernandez E, Guillory S (2001) High-resolution spatio-temporal mapping of visual pathways using multi-electrode arrays. Vision Res 41:1261–1275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Rousche PJ, Normann RA (1999) Chronic intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of cat sensory cortex using the utah intracortical electrode array. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 7:56–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Warren DJ, Koulakov A, Normann RA (2004) Spatiotemporal encoding of a bar’s direction of motion by neural ensembles in cat primary visual cortex. Ann Biomed Eng 32:1265–1275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Normann RA, Maynard EM, Rousche PJ, Warren DJ (1999) A neural interface for a cortical vision prosthesis. Vision Res 39:2577–2587

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Hochberg LR, Bacher D, Jarosiewicz B, Masse NY, Simeral JD, Vogel J, Haddadin S, Liu J, Cash SS, van der Smagt P, Donoghue JP (2012) Reach and grasp by people with tetraplegia using a neurally controlled robotic arm. Nature 485:372–375

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AH, Branner A, Chen D, Penn RD, Donoghue JP (2006) Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia. Nature 442:164–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Wark HA, Sharma R, Mathews KS, Fernandez E, Yoo J, Christensen B, Tresco P, Rieth L, Solzbacher F, Normann RA, Tathireddy P (2013) A new high-density (25 electrodes/mm2) penetrating microelectrode array for recording and stimulating sub-millimeter neuroanatomical structures. J Neural Eng 10:045003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Polikov VS, Tresco PA, Reichert WM (2005) Response of brain tissue to chronically implanted neural electrodes. J Neurosci Methods 148:1–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Prasad A, Sanchez JC (2012) Quantifying long-term microelectrode array functionality using chronic in vivo impedance testing. J Neural Eng 9:026028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Nicolelis MA, Dimitrov D, Carmena JM, Crist R, Lehew G, Kralik JD, Wise SP (2003) Chronic, multisite, multielectrode recordings in macaque monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:11041–11046

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Fawcett JW, Asher RA (1999) The glial scar and central nervous system repair. Brain Res Bull 49:377–391

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Prasad A, Xue QS, Sankar V, Nishida T, Shaw G, Streit WJ, Sanchez JC (2012) Comprehensive characterization and failure modes of tungsten microwire arrays in chronic neural implants. J Neural Eng 9:056015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Szarowski DH, Andersen MD, Retterer S, Spence AJ, Isaacson M, Craighead HG, Turner JN, Shain W (2003) Brain responses to micro-machined silicon devices. Brain Res 983:23–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Williams JC, Hippensteel JA, Dilgen J, Shain W, Kipke DR (2007) Complex impedance spectroscopy for monitoring tissue responses to inserted neural implants. J Neural Eng 4:410–423

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Subbaroyan J, Martin DC, Kipke DR (2005) A finite-element model of the mechanical effects of implantable microelectrodes in the cerebral cortex. J Neural Eng 2:103–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Hsu JM, Rieth L, Normann RA, Tathireddy P, Solzbacher F (2009) Encapsulation of an integrated neural interface device with Parylene C. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 56:23–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Lai HY, Liao LD, Lin CT, Hsu JH, He X, Chen YY, Chang JY, Chen HF, Tsang S, Shih YY (2012) Design, simulation and experimental validation of a novel flexible neural probe for deep brain stimulation and multichannel recording. J Neural Eng 9:036001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Lee SE, Jun SB, Lee HJ, Kim J, Lee SW, Im C, Shin HC, Chang JW, Kim SJ (2012) A flexible depth probe using liquid crystal polymer. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 59:2085–2094

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Rousche PJ, Pellinen DS, Pivin DP, Williams JC, Vetter RJ, Kipke DR (2001) Flexible polyimide-based intracortical electrode arrays with bioactive capability. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 48:361–371

    Google Scholar 

  41. Cheung KC, Renaud P, Tanila H, Djupsund K (2007) Flexible polyimide microelectrode array for in vivo recordings and current source density analysis. Biosens Bioelectron 22:1783–1790

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Metz S, Jiguet S, Bertsch A, Renaud P (2004) Polyimide and SU-8 microfluidic devices manufactured by heat-depolymerizable sacrificial material technique. Lab Chip 4:114–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Schmidt EM, McIntosh JS, Bak MJ (1988) Long-term implants of Parylene-C coated microelectrodes. Med Biol Eng Comput 26:96–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Schmidt EM, Bak MJ, Christensen P (1995) Laser exposure of Parylene-C insulated microelectrodes. J Neurosci Methods 62:89–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Kato Y, Saito I, Hoshino T, Suzuki T, Mabuchi K (2006) Preliminary study of multichannel flexible neural probes coated with hybrid biodegradable polymer. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc 1:660–663

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Kim BJ, Kuo JT, Hara SA, Lee CD, Yu L, Gutierrez CA, Hoang TQ, Pikov V, Meng E (2013) 3D Parylene sheath neural probe for chronic recordings. J Neural Eng 10:045002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Takeuchi S, Ziegler D, Yoshida Y, Mabuchi K, Suzuki T (2005) Parylene flexible neural probes integrated with microfluidic channels. Lab Chip 5:519–523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Kozai TD, Kipke DR (2009) Insertion shuttle with carboxyl terminated self-assembled monolayer coatings for implanting flexible polymer neural probes in the brain. J Neurosci Methods 184:199–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Chhatbar PY, von Kraus LM, Semework M, Francis JT (2010) A bio-friendly and economical technique for chronic implantation of multiple microelectrode arrays. J Neurosci Methods 188:187–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Musallam S, Bak MJ, Troyk PR, Andersen RA (2007) A floating metal microelectrode array for chronic implantation. J Neurosci Methods 160:122–127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Sankar V, Sanchez JC, McCumiskey E, Brown N, Taylor CR, Ehlert GJ, Sodano HA, Nishida T (2013) A highly compliant serpentine shaped polyimide interconnect for front-end strain relief in chronic neural implants. Front Neurol 4:124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Nicolelis MA (2003) Brain-machine interfaces to restore motor function and probe neural circuits. Nat Rev Neurosci 4:417–422

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Burda JE, Sofroniew MV (2014) Reactive gliosis and the multicellular response to CNS damage and disease. Neuron 81:229–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Dietrich PY, Walker PR, Saas P (2003) Death receptors on reactive astrocytes: a key role in the fine tuning of brain inflammation? Neurology 60:548–554

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Billakanti R (2012) Reactive astrogliosis after spinal cord injury-beneficial and detrimental effects. Mol Neurobiol 46:251–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Malhotra SK, Shnitka TK, Elbrink J (1990) Reactive astrocytes—a review. Cytobios 61:133–160

    Google Scholar 

  57. Pekny M, Nilsson M (2005) Astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis. Glia 50:427–434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Thomas WE (1992) Brain macrophages: evaluation of microglia and their functions. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 17:61–74

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  59. Bovolenta P, Wandosell F, Nieto-Sampedro M (1992) CNS glial scar tissue: a source of molecules which inhibit central neurite outgrowth. Prog Brain Res 94:367–379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Nojyo Y, Ibata Y, Sano Y (1976) Demonstration of the tuberoinfundibular tract of the cat: fluorescence histochemistry and electron microscopy. Cell Tissue Res 168:289–301

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Stensaas SS, Stensaas LJ (1976) The reaction of the cerebral cortex to chronically implanted plastic needles. Acta Neuropathol 35:187–203

    Google Scholar 

  62. Brenner M (2014) Role of GFAP in CNS injuries. Neurosci Lett 565C:7–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Huang L, Wu ZB, Zhuge Q, Zheng W, Shao B, Wang B, Sun F, Jin K (2014) Glial scar formation occurs in the human brain after ischemic stroke. Int J Med Sci 11:344–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Wang T, Zhang W, Pei Z, Block M, Wilson B, Reece JM, Miller DS, Hong JS (2006) Reactive microgliosis participates in MPP+ -induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration: role of 67 kDa laminin receptor. FASEB J 20:906–915

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Kozai TD, Langhals NB, Patel PR, Deng X, Zhang H, Smith KL, Lahann J, Kotov NA, Kipke DR (2012) Ultrasmall implantable composite microelectrodes with bioactive surfaces for chronic neural interfaces. Nat Mater 11:1065–1073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Norton WT, Aquino DA, Hozumi I, Chiu FC, Brosnan CF (1992) Quantitative aspects of reactive gliosis: a review. Neurochem Res 17:877–885

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Ignatius MJ, Sawhney N, Gupta A, Thibadeau BM, Monteiro OR, Brown IG (1998) Bioactive surface coatings for nanoscale instruments: effects on CNS neurons. J Biomed Mater Res 40:264–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Spataro L, Dilgen J, Retterer S, Spence AJ, Isaacson M, Turner JN, Shain W (2005) Dexamethasone treatment reduces astroglia responses to inserted neuroprosthetic devices in rat neocortex. Exp Neurol 194:289–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Zhong Y, Bellamkonda RV (2007) Dexamethasone-coated neural probes elicit attenuated inflammatory response and neuronal loss compared to uncoated neural probes. Brain Res 1148:15–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Retterer ST, Smith KL, Bjornsson CS, Neeves KB, Spence AJ, Turner JN, Shain W, Isaacson MS (2004) Model neural prostheses with integrated microfluidics: a potential intervention strategy for controlling reactive cell and tissue responses. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 51:2063–2073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Williams JC, Holecko MM, Massia SP, Rousche P, Kipke DR (2005) Multi-site incorporation of bioactive matrices into MEMS-based neural probes. J Neural Eng 2:L23–L28

    Google Scholar 

  72. Metz S, Holzer R, Renaud P (2001) Polyimide-based microfluidic devices. Lab Chip 1:29–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Rohatgi P, Langhals NB, Kipke DR, Patil PG (2009) In vivo performance of a microelectrode neural probe with integrated drug delivery. Neurosurg Focus 27:E8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Cui X, Hetke JF, Wiler JA, Anderson DJ, Martin DC (2001) Electrochemical deposition and characterization of conducting polymer polypyrrole/PSS on multichannel neural probes. Sens Actuators A 93:8–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Cui X, Martin DC (2003) Electrochemical deposition and characterization of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) on neural microelectrode arrays. Sens Actuators B Chem 89:92–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Yang J, Kim DH, Hendricks JL, Leach M, Northey R, Martin DC (2005) Ordered surfactant-templated poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) conducting polymer on microfabricated neural probes. Acta Biomater 1:125–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Ludwig KA, Uram JD, Yang J, Martin DC, Kipke DR (2006) Chronic neural recordings using silicon microelectrode arrays electrochemically deposited with a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) film. J Neural Eng 3:59–70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Lind G, Linsmeier CE, Schouenborg J (2013) The density difference between tissue and neural probes is a key factor for glial scarring. Sci Rep 3:2942

    Google Scholar 

  79. Kang M, Jung S, Zhang H, Kang T, Kang H, Yoo Y, Hong JP, Ahn JP, Kwak J, Jeon D, Kotov NA, Kim B (2014) Subcellular neural probes from single-crystal gold nanowires. ACS Nano 8:8182–8189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Edell DJ, Toi VV, McNeil VM, Clark LD (1992) Factors influencing the biocompatibility of insertable silicon microshafts in cerebral cortex. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 39:635–643

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Bjornsson CS, Oh SJ, Al-Kofahi YA, Lim YJ, Smith KL, Turner JN, De S, Roysam B, Shain W, Kim SJ (2006) Effects of insertion conditions on tissue strain and vascular damage during neuroprosthetic device insertion. J Neural Eng 3:196–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Welkenhuysen M, Andrei A, Ameye L, Eberle W, Nuttin B (2011) Effect of insertion speed on tissue response and insertion mechanics of a chronically implanted silicon-based neural probe. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 58:3250–3259

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Kim YT, Hitchcock RW, Bridge MJ, Tresco PA (2004) Chronic response of adult rat brain tissue to implants anchored to the skull. Biomaterials 25:2229–2237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Thelin J, Jorntell H, Psouni E, Garwicz M, Schouenborg J, Danielsen N, Linsmeier CE (2011) Implant size and fixation mode strongly influence tissue reactions in the CNS. PLoS One 6:e16267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Lind G, Gallentoft L, Danielsen N, Schouenborg J, Pettersson LM (2012) Multiple implants do not aggravate the tissue reaction in rat brain. PLoS One 7:e47509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Fernandez E, Greger B, House PA, Aranda I, Botella C, Albisua J, Soto-Sanchez C, Alfaro A, Normann RA (2014) Acute human brain responses to intracortical microelectrode arrays: challenges and future prospects. Front Neuroeng 7:24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Linsmeier CE, Thelin J, Danielsen N (2011) Can histology solve the riddle of the nonfunctioning electrode? Factors influencing the biocompatibility of brain machine interfaces. Prog Brain Res 194:181–189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Potter-Baker KA, Ravikumar M, Burke AA, Meador WD, Householder KT, Buck AC, Sunil S, Stewart WG, Anna JP, Tomaszewski WH, Capadona JR (2014) A comparison of neuroinflammation to implanted microelectrodes in rat and mouse models. Biomaterials 35:5637

    Google Scholar 

  89. Winslow BD, Tresco PA (2010) Quantitative analysis of the tissue response to chronically implanted microwire electrodes in rat cortex. Biomaterials 31:1558–1567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Buzsaki G, Anastassiou CA, Koch C (2012) The origin of extracellular fields and currents—EEG, ECoG, LFP and spikes. Nat Rev Neurosci 13:407–420

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work is supported by the Center for Integrated Smart Sensors funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning as the Global Frontier Project(CISS-2012M3A6A6054204) and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST) (NRF-2014R1A2A2A09052449, 2014R1A1A1A05003770).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Electronics Engineering, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 120-750, Republic of Korea

    Sang Beom Jun

Authors
  1. Sang Beom Jun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sang Beom Jun .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Electrical Engineering Center for Integrated Smart Sensors, KAIST, Daejoen, Korea, Republic of (South Korea)

    Chong-Min Kyung

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Jun, S.B. (2015). Implantable Brain Interface: High-Density Microelectrode Array for Neural Recording. In: Kyung, CM. (eds) Smart Sensors for Health and Environment Monitoring. KAIST Research Series. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9981-2_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9981-2_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-017-9980-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-017-9981-2

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation