Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

New Zealand

  • Chapter
The Politics of Adoption

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 41))

  • 1240 Accesses

Abstract

Beginning with a brief background history, this chapter considers the social context giving rise to adoption, the resulting types of adoption and the emerging characteristics of that process in New Zealand. This is followed by an overview of contemporary law, policy and practice which outlines the current legislative framework. It then applies the template of legal functions (see, Chap. 3) to outline the adoption process, identify and assess its distinctive characteristics and thereby facilitate a comparative analysis with other jurisdictions. While acknowledging the ongoing significance of the Māori practice of whāngai, and the important legacy its principles have bequeathed to statutory law, this is not examined in any detail in this chapter (see, further, Sect. 18.4). It concludes with a summary and assessment of the more distinctive and significant characteristics of the contemporary adoption process in New Zealand up to and including 2014.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    See, Dalley, B. 1998. Ex-nuptial births, adoption, foster care and child abuse. In Family matters: Child welfare in twentieth century New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press. Also, see, Else, A. 1991. A question of adoption: Closed stranger adoption in New Zealand 1944–74. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books.

  2. 2.

    The population ‘replacement rate’’ is held to be 2. At the end of 2007 it was at 2.2, the highest since 1990.

  3. 3.

    Statistics New Zealand 2007b, 2007a.

  4. 4.

    See, Yeoman, A., L. Cook, and K. Wong. 2008. The Kiwi Nest: 60 years of change in New Zealand families. Wellington: The Families Commission.

    See, further, Cribb, J. 2009. Focus on families: New Zealand families of yesterday, today and tomorrow. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand Te Puna Whakaaro, Issue 35, at: http://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/journals-and-magazines/social-policy-journal/spj35/35-focus-on-families.html

  5. 5.

    Author, acknowledges with thanks, advice of Bill Atkins on this matter (note to author, 20.09.14).

  6. 6.

    Statistics New Zealand 2007a.

  7. 7.

    Statistics New Zealand, Demographic Trends: 2012. See, further, at: http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/demographic-trends-2012/marriage%20civil%20union%20and%20divorce.aspx

  8. 8.

    Ibid. Figures released in 2014 showed 19,237 marriages were registered to resident New Zealanders the previous year—a figure fewer than 20,000 for the first time in more than 12 years.

  9. 9.

    See, Goodger, K. 1998. Maintaining sole parent families in New Zealand: An historical review. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand Te Puna Whakaaro, Issue 10, at: http://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/journals-and-magazines/social-policy-journal/spj10/maintaining-sole-parent-families-in-new-zealand.html

  10. 10.

    Note that the DPB was abolished in 2013. A sole parent would now get “sole parent support” in Part 1B of the Social Security Act 1964 (as amended).

  11. 11.

    See, Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, ‘The Decline in Adoption’, at: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/adoption/page-3

  12. 12.

    See, Pool, I., et al. 2007. The New Zealand family from 1840: A demographic history. Auckland: Auckland University Press.

  13. 13.

    Statistics New Zealand 2007e.

  14. 14.

    Statistics New Zealand 2005, 2007e.

  15. 15.

    See, further, Statistics New Zealand at: http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/projections-overview/nat-family-hhold-proj.aspx

  16. 16.

    See Statistics New Zealand at: http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/health/abortion/AbortionStatistics_HOTPYeDec13.aspx

  17. 17.

    See, In the Matter of Baby P (an unborn child) [1995] NZFLR 577. This is not dissimilar to the interpretation in Irish law.

  18. 18.

    The 1987 Act was repealed and incorporated into Part II of the Status of Children Act 1969.

  19. 19.

    See, further, at: http://acart.health.govt.nz

  20. 20.

    [1998] NZFLR 769.

  21. 21.

    This material derives from the Law Commission report. See, further, the New Zealand Law Commission at: http://www.nzlii.org/nz/other/nzlc/pp/PP54/PP54-4_.html

  22. 22.

    See, further, at: http://www.cyf.govt.nz/about-us/who-we-are-what-we-do/adoptions-data-back-up.html

  23. 23.

    [1990] NZFLR 385.

  24. 24.

    Unreported (3 February 1993) DC Invercargill Adopt 6/92 Neal J.

  25. 25.

    Unreported (13 August 2003) FC Wanganui FAM-2003-034-17. See, also, Re An Application by BWS to adopt a child [2011] NZFLR 621. For a full account of surrogacy case law in New Zealand see Atkins, B. 2012. Adoption law: The courts outflanking Parliament. New Zealand Family Law Journal 7(5): 90–97.

  26. 26.

    See, the Human Assisted Reproductive Technology (HART) Act 2004, s 14. See, further, International Surrogacy Information Sheet at: http://www.cyf.govt.nz/documents/adoption/is-information-sheet-june2011.pdf

  27. 27.

    This Bill has now been withdrawn, hopefully to be re-introduced as a Government bill after the forthcoming election.

  28. 28.

    Statistical data available from the Department of Child, Youth and Family. See, further, at: http://www.cyf.govt.nz/about-us/who-we-are-what-we-do/kids-in-care-back-up.html

  29. 29.

    See, Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbook 1990, p 217.

  30. 30.

    See, further, at: http://www.cyf.govt.nz/about-us/who-we-are-what-we-do/adoptions-data-back-up.html

  31. 31.

    See, further, at: http://www.adoptionoption.org.nz/adoption/new-zealand-adoption-prof/

  32. 32.

    See, Iwanec, M. 1997. Adoption in New Zealand – Past, present and future. In Adoption and healing: Proceedings of the international conference on adoption and healing, ed. K. Sprengers. Wellington: New Zealand Adoption Education & Healing Trust.

  33. 33.

    See, UN Dept of Economic and Social Affairs, Child Adoption: Trends and Policies, 2009, at p 71.

  34. 34.

    See, further, at: http://www.hcch.net/upload/wop/adop2010pd05_nz.pdf

    Also, see, somewhat different data supplied by Griffith K., in New Zealand History and Practice, Social and Legal 1840–1996 at: http://www.cyf.govt.nz/documents/about-us/adoption-data-1955-2011.pdf

  35. 35.

    See, further, at: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/adoption/page-6

  36. 36.

    See, further, at: http://www.hcch.net/upload/wop/adop2010pd05_nz.pdf

  37. 37.

    It has been estimated that about 700 Russian orphans have been adopted by New Zealanders since the 1991 collapse of the USSR.

  38. 38.

    See, Pool, I., A. Dharmalingam, and J. Sceats. 2007. The New Zealand family from 1840: A demographic history. Auckland: Auckland University Press, at p 239.

  39. 39.

    See, Ministry of Social Development 2004:32.

  40. 40.

    A v. R [1999] NZFLR 249.

  41. 41.

    See, Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand at: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/adoption/page-2

  42. 42.

    See, Osborne, M., ‘Single Parent Adoption and Women’ at: http://adoption.about.com/od/nontraditional/a/singleapar.htm

  43. 43.

    See, Selman, P. and Mason, J., Adoption: better choices for our children, report to Adoption Law Review Group of the Scottish Executive, 2005 at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/06/27140607/07142#3

  44. 44.

    See, Griffiths, K., ‘Adoption History and Reform in New Zealand’, 1996, at: http://adoptionnz.com/?page_id=118

  45. 45.

    See, Else, A. 1991. A question of adoption: Closed stranger adoption in New Zealand, 1944–74. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. Also, see, Scherman, R. 2012. Openness and intercountry adoption in New Zealand. In Intercountry adoption: Policy, practices and outcomes, ed. J. Gibbons and K. Rotabi. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing.

  46. 46.

    As explained at: http://www.adoptionoption.org.nz/adoption/new-zealand-adoption-prof/

  47. 47.

    See, further at: http://adoptionoption.org.nz

  48. 48.

    See, further at: http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10907481

  49. 49.

    [1998] 1 NZLR 523. This decision had the consequence of exposing a conflict between the definition of marriage in the 1955 Act and the non-discrimination requirement in the Human Rights Act 1993.

  50. 50.

    The traditional stance of the court was evident in In the Matter of R [1999] NZFLR 145 when Judge Inglis held that, in the absence of a definition containing a wider meaning, “spouses” referred to married couples. Also, see, Re An Application by BWS to adopt a child [2011] NZFLR 621.

    In 2013 there were 209 same-sex marriages and 187 civil unions registered to New Zealand residents, with an additional 46 to overseas residents.

  51. 51.

    See, Application by RH to adopt RTH – Family Court, Napier A, 13/84. Also, see Re an application by T [1998] NZFLR 769.

  52. 52.

    See, for example, Newman, E. 2013. History of transracial adoption: A New Zealand perspective. American Indian Quarterly 37(1–2): 237, University of Nebraska Press.

  53. 53.

    See, Collins, M.H. Belonging and Whakapapa: The closed stranger adoption of Mäori children into Pākehā Families’, thesis, Massey University, at: http://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/3195/02_whole.pdf?sequence=1

  54. 54.

    See, Scherman, R. 2011. Intercountry adoption of eastern European children in New Zealand: Issues of culture. Australian Journal of Adoption 3(2): 142–157. Also, see, Scherman, R., and N. Harre. 2004. Intercountry adoption of eastern European children in New Zealand: Parents’ attitudes towards the importance of culture. Adoption & Fostering 28(3): 62–72.

  55. 55.

    See, further, at: http://www.cfo.org.nz/details-of-pre-adoption-education

  56. 56.

    Author, acknowledges with thanks, advice of Bill Atkins on this matter (note to author, 20.09.14). See, further, at: http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2014/0041/latest/DLM6110551.html

  57. 57.

    See, Atkins, B. 2012. Adoption law: The courts outflanking Parliament. New Zealand Family Law Journal 7(5): 119–123, at p 119.

  58. 58.

    See, further, at: http://www.cyf.govt.nz/documents/about-us/publications/your-rights.pdf

  59. 59.

    See, New Zealand Law Commission, Adoption and Its Alternatives: A Different Approach and a New Framework, September 2000, at p 42.

  60. 60.

    See, Gibbs, A., and R. Scherman. Pathways to parenting in New Zealand: Issues in law, policy and practice. Kotuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online. doi: 10.1080/1177083X.2013.82107.

  61. 61.

    See, The Law Commission, Preliminary Paper 38, Adoption: Options for Reform, NZLC PP38, Wellington, 1999, at p xi.

  62. 62.

    See, The Law Commission, Report 65 Adoption and Its Alternatives: A different approach and a new framework, NZLC R65, Wellington, 2000.

  63. 63.

    Guardianship has been available in New Zealand since 1968 and a step-parent could be appointed guardian without the necessity for, or security of, a court order.

  64. 64.

    The Care of Children Act 2004, s 16.

  65. 65.

    See, Atkin, B. 2006. New Zealand: Landmark family legislation. In The international survey of family law, ed. A. Bainham, 305–320. Bristol: Jordan Publishing, at p 310.

  66. 66.

    Ibid, ss 23–25.

  67. 67.

    See, Selwyn, J., and W. Sturgess. 2001. International overview of adoption: Policy and practice. Bristol: School of Policy Studies, University of Bristol, at p 92.

  68. 68.

    The Care of Children Act 2004, s 47.

  69. 69.

    [2009] NZFLR 1081.

  70. 70.

    Ibid, at paras at [29] and [32].

  71. 71.

    Ibid, at para [30]. See, further, Atkins, B. 2012. Adoption law: The courts outflanking Parliament. New Zealand Family Law Journal 7(5): 90–97, from which this account was taken.

  72. 72.

    See, Atkin, B., ‘New Zealand: Landmark Family Legislation’, op cit, at pp 311–314.

  73. 73.

    See, Henaghan, M. 2005. Care of children. Wellington: LexisNexis at p 48.

  74. 74.

    See, Ward, P. 2004. Achieving permanence for looked after children through special guardianship: A study of the experience of New Zealand guardians with implications for special guardianship in England. Adoption & Fostering 28(4): 16–26, at p 18.

  75. 75.

    See, further, at: http://www.icanz.gen.nz/index.html

  76. 76.

    See, further, at: http://www.cfo.org.nz

  77. 77.

    The Births, Deaths, and Marriages Registration Act 1995, s 23.

  78. 78.

    The Adoption Act 1955, ss 2, 3(1).

  79. 79.

    [2003] NZFLR 529.

  80. 80.

    Ibid, para 16.

  81. 81.

    The Care of Children Act 2004, s 17.

  82. 82.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 7(3)(b).

  83. 83.

    The Care of Children Act 2004, s 18.

  84. 84.

    The Care of Children Act 2004, s 19.

  85. 85.

    The Adoption Act 1955, ss 3, 11.

  86. 86.

    [2010] NZFLR 629.

  87. 87.

    New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990, s 19, with the anti-discrimination grounds appearing in Human Rights Act 1993, s 21.

  88. 88.

    Re Application by AMM and KJO to adopt a child [2010] NZFLR 629 at [50].

  89. 89.

    For a fuller examination of these issues see Atkins, B. 2012. Adoption law: The courts outflanking Parliament. New Zealand Family Law Journal 7(5): 119–123, from which this account was taken.

  90. 90.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 7(2)(b).

  91. 91.

    [2008] NZFLR 185.

  92. 92.

    Ibid, at para 5.

  93. 93.

    Ibid, at para at 53.

  94. 94.

    See Atkins B, ‘Adoption law: The courts outflanking Parliament’, New Zealand Family Law Journal, (2012) 7 NZFLJ No 5, from which this account was taken.

  95. 95.

    The Adoption Act 1955, ss 25, 26.

  96. 96.

    The Adoption Act 1955, ss 3(3), 4(1)(c).

  97. 97.

    Ibid.

  98. 98.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 2, s 4(1)(b).

  99. 99.

    Also, Dingwall Trust, Key Assets, Open Home Foundation, Youth Horizons and over 50 others including many iwi agencies.

  100. 100.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 15(2).

  101. 101.

    Ibid, s 7(4).

  102. 102.

    The Adoption Regulations 1959, Reg 9, Schedule Forms 2 and 3.

  103. 103.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 7(4).

  104. 104.

    Ibid, s 7(6).

  105. 105.

    Ibid, s 27A(1).

  106. 106.

    Ibid, s 9(2).

  107. 107.

    Ibid, s 8.

  108. 108.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 8(4).

  109. 109.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 11(b).

  110. 110.

    See, K v. G [2004] NZFLR 1105, at paras 22–23.

  111. 111.

    [1989] 2 NZLR 314. The author is grateful to Bill Atkins for drawing this case to his attention (note to author, 20.09.14).

  112. 112.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 11(b).

  113. 113.

    Ibid, at s 13A.

  114. 114.

    The Adoption Act 1955, ss 11, 16.

  115. 115.

    As required by the Births, Deaths, and Marriages Registration Act 1995, s 24.

  116. 116.

    The Adoption Act 1955, s 16(1).

  117. 117.

    Ibid, s 16(2).

  118. 118.

    Ibid, s 16(2)(a).

  119. 119.

    The Births, Deaths, Marriages and Relationships Registration Act 1995, s 27.

  120. 120.

    See, further at: http://adoptionoption.org.nz

  121. 121.

    See, further, at: http://www.cfo.org.nz/details-of-pre-adoption-education

  122. 122.

    (1986) 2 FRNZ 112, 117 (FC).

  123. 123.

    See, further, Griffith, K.C. 1991. The right to know who you are: Reform of adoption law with honesty, openness and integrity. Ottawa: K. W. Kimbell.

  124. 124.

    See, the New Zealand Law Commission, Preliminary Paper 38, Adoption: Options for Reform, Chap 15, ‘Access to Adoption Information’ Wellington, 1999.

  125. 125.

    Ibid, citing Re Adoption of S [1996] NZFLR 552 (FC).

  126. 126.

    Ibid, citing Mikaere, A. 1994. Mäori Women: Caught in the contradiction of a colonised reality. 1 Waikato Law Revew 2: 125–149, Hamilton.

  127. 127.

    See, further, at: http://www.dia.govt.nz/Births-deaths-and-marriages

  128. 128.

    Adult Adoption Information Act 1985, ss 3–6, 11.

  129. 129.

    Also, see, Adoption (Intercountry) Act 1997, s 30.

  130. 130.

    See, the New Zealand Law Commission, Preliminary Paper 38, op cit, citing 7 CCNO 224 (LJ Castle).

  131. 131.

    See, further, Slane, B.H., Privacy Commissioner, ‘Access to Adoption Information’, 1 March 2000, at: http://www.privacy.org.nz/news-and-publications/reports-to-parliament-and-government/access-to-adoption-information/

  132. 132.

    The Privacy Act 1993, s 29(1)(a).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Queensland University of Technology, Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

    Kerry O’Halloran

Authors
  1. Kerry O’Halloran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

O’Halloran, K. (2015). New Zealand. In: The Politics of Adoption. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 41. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9777-1_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation