Abstract
Are our five senses a reliable basis for perceiving the world truthfully, and acting within it morally? Opinions on this differ in Medieval and Renaissance thought, to suggest that ethical and epistemological interpretations of the work of the five senses found in Medieval and Renaissance thought—whether doctrinal, scientific or literary, are often complex and contradictory. The iconography of the senses often elides the moral and cognitive aspects of the work of a particular sense is often elided with its sensual function. Cognition and morality are topics most often discussed in the context of the functioning of the human senses: individual senses are associated with particular types of cognition and memory, and almost always with morality. This is significant as doctrines which govern human conduct, including religious doctrines, always engaged with the work of the human senses. This article reviews the most significant ideas on the ethical and epistemological aspects of the senses from Plato, through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Reformation, to the beginnings of modernity and a new understanding a virtuous life as defined by a sensual exchange in harmony with the senses.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Institoris, Heinrich (1971), Part 1, Question 5.
- 3.
Plato (1989), Timaeus), 45b. Unless otherwise cited, I have used this edition for all citations from Plato.
- 4.
Petrarch (1999). Unless otherwise cited, I have used this edition for all citations from Petrarch.
- 5.
All references to The Garden of Eloquence are taken from Peacham (1593).
- 6.
- 7.
Peacham, The Garden of Eloquence, p. 5.
- 8.
Shakespeare (1997). I have used this edition for all citations of Shakespeare’s work.
- 9.
Castiglione (1900), The Book of the Courtier, Book 3, p. 225.
- 10.
I quote from Idea’s Mirrour (1594) and Idea (1594, 1602, 1605 and 1619) using the reference to the sonnet, lines and year of publication in brackets, e.g. (1:1–4, 1619). Citing Idea has represented a challenge, as standard editions provide incomplete selections. For the purposes of this chapter, I have cited Idea and other works by Michael Drayton using Minor Poems by Michael Drayton edited by Cyril Brett (1907), which, despite its age, I have found to be the most complete, and The Works of Michael Drayton ed. by J. William Hebel (1961). I have also consulted Poems of Michael Drayton edited by John Buxton (1967). I do not, however, generally use this edition to cite Idea, as it represents a selection of 33 sonnets from five sequences authorised by Drayton in his lifetime, all provided without reference to the year of their publication. As an exception, I have used Buxton to cite two sonnets which do not appear in Brett and Hebel’s editions.
- 11.
- 12.
“So between joy and anguish [the soul] is distraught… perplexed and frenzied; with madness upon [it], [it] can neither sleep by night nor keep still by day, but runs hither and thither, yearning for [the beloved] in whom beauty dwells. […] All the rules of conduct, all the graces of life, of which aforetime [it] was proud, the soul now disdains, welcoming a slave’s estate… for … [it] has found in [the beloved] the only physician for [its] grievous suffering”. (Plato, Phaedrus, 251d, e).
- 13.
Aristotle, De Anima 429a, De Partibus Animalium, 656a. Unless otherwise cited, all references to Aristotle’s works are taken from Aristotle (1931).
- 14.
Ovid (1986). Medusa, Salmacis and all references to Metamorphoses in the further text come from this edition.
- 15.
The negative iconographies of Venus relate to Pandemia, or the earthly Aprhodite of Plato’s Symposium. Bestial aspects of Venus Vulgaris and Venus Machinitis are described by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. (Pico, 1962). The best analysis of the complex medieval and early modern iconographies of Venus is Cousins (1994).
- 16.
Book of Genesis 3:6, The New Oxford Annotated Bible (1989).
- 17.
- 18.
1 Samuel 16.14–23. The New Oxford Annotated Bible (1989).
- 19.
Burton (1621), Sect II, Memb. VI.3, 1621.
- 20.
Cassiodorus (1980), pp. 3–4. “Quod si nos bona conuersatione tractemus, tali disciplinae probamur semper esse sociati. Quando uero iniquitates gerimus, musicam non habemus”.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
Whitney (1586), p. 160. Although the “double tongue” refers to personal ethics, it is interesting to note that the term is sourced from the negative ethical “colouring” attached to the idea of bilinguism, the source meaning of “double tongue”.
- 24.
Ars est celare artem, the story of Pygmalion, Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
- 25.
- 26.
Bartolomeo Del Bene (1609), pp. 28–29, represents the soul as a city with five gates; Edmund Spenser’s five bulwarks of the Castle of Alma in The Faerie Queene (Spenser 1981, 2.11.7–13); the “Cinque Ports” or “five imaginary forts” of Andrew Marvell’s “Upon Appleton House”, Marvell (2007), l. 349. For a detailed discussion of these works and a detailed discussion of touch, see Harvey (2011) p. 392.
- 27.
Erasmus of Rotterdam (1989), p. 360 (LB IV 722-D/ASD IV-I 330).
- 28.
Perkins (1595), p. 1. Webbe also uses the same expression (1619), p. 144. Also cited in Vienne-Guerrin (2012), p. xxxvi.
- 29.
Webbe (1619), p. 2. Also cited in Vienne-Guerrin (2012), p. xviii. The Unruly Tongue in Early Modern England (Vienne-Guerrin 2012) is a scholarly edition of three early modern treatises on the unruly tongue: Jean de Marconville, A Treatise of the Good and Evell Tounge (ca.1592), William Perkins, A Direction for the Government of the Tongue according to Gods worde (1595), and George Webbe, The Araignement of an unruly Tongue (1619). “The tongue can no man tame” says the Bible (James 3:8), and yet these texts try to tame the tongues of men and tell them how they should rule this little but essential organ and avoid swearing, blaspheming, cursing, lying, flattering, railing, slandering, quarrelling, babbling, jesting, or mocking. This volume excavates the biblical and classical sources in which these early modern texts are embedded and gives a panorama of the sins of the tongue that the Elizabethan society both cultivates and strives to contain. Vienne-Guerrin provides the reader with early modern images of what Erasmus described as a “slippery” and “ambivalent” organ that is both sweet and sour, a source of life and death.
- 30.
Jean Calvin, A little booke of Iohn Caluines, fols 9v, 20 r, 68r; Whitgift, The Defense of the Aunswere, p. 34, cited in Milner (2011), p. 279, footnote 233.
- 31.
It is semantically akin to the processes of enhancing female beauty by means of makeup; the ethical ambiguity of the latter has been discussed by many writers—most memorable examples come from Ovid in The Art of love to Pietro Aretino in The School of Whoredom and Shakespeare in The Winter’s Tale and Hamlet, and many others.
- 32.
- 33.
St. Bernard of Clairvaux (2010), “Sermo 7.4.5”.
- 34.
- 35.
My writing in this section is variously indebted to supervising the work of Claudia Lewin, (2012), pp. 48–50.
- 36.
Compare Petrarch’s somewhat tamer description of Laura as “food so noble” as to eclipse “Jove’s sweet ambrosia”. Petrarch (1999).
- 37.
All references to Spenser’s sonnets come from Spenser (1999). 35 and 83 are, in fact, the same sonnet, the second version containing minor lexical differences. The repetition of the Narcissus motif could have been used to heighten its importance and impact, as well as provide relief from the gathering narrative movement. Opinions on the reasons for the repetition of this sonnet differ. Lever considered it the most important mark of “haste and botching” in the printing of the volume containing Amoretti and Epithalamion (Lever 1956/1966, p. 101), an opinion with which Donna Gibbs essentially agrees (Gibbs 1990, p. 30). Louis Martz, on the other hand, saw the repetition as a “designed reminiscence and recurrence of an earlier mood of pining and complaint” (Martz 1961, p. 151) while Alexander Dunlop saw it a part of the lover’s progress in the education of love while Alexander Dunlop saw it as part of the lover’s progress in the education of love (Dunlop, 1978, esp. p. 280).
- 38.
Conversely, Kenneth Larsen argues that Christian remodelling of Tasso’s classical apple references signals the prelapsarian gracefulness of the breast. Spenser (1997), p. 27.
- 39.
- 40.
The Garden of Eloquence, 4.
- 41.
Aquinas (1953), Q. 16.2; see also Cummings (2009), p. 469.
- 42.
Aristotle, De anima 429a; see also Kemp and Fletcher (1993), 561.
- 43.
Isaiah 11:3, which is restated in 2 Nephi 21:3. The New Oxford Annotated Bible (1989).
- 44.
Gal Einai Institute (1996–2011), web n.p.
- 45.
Peacham, The Garden of Eloquence, 4.
- 46.
See also Schoenfeldt, 94, and Duncan-Jones (2003), esp. 138.
- 47.
Peacham, The Garden of Eloquence, 5.
- 48.
Sidney (1962), Astrophil and Stella, Sonnet 9.
- 49.
- 50.
Peacham, The Garden of Eloquence, 7.
- 51.
Peacham, The Garden of Eloquence, 7.
- 52.
Aristotle, De anima, 424b. Also cited in Assaf (2005), p. 82 and 95 (see footnote 34).
- 53.
- 54.
‘Inedesimarsi’, trans: ‘insert oneself’, Santagata (1996), p. 1186.
- 55.
- 56.
Calvin, Commentary on I Cor. 7:6, (1546), CR 49, cited by Francois (forthcoming 2014).
- 57.
Valla (1982), Repastinatio, 73.
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Kambaskovic, D. (2014). ‘Among the Rest of the Senses…Proved Most Sure’: Ethics of the Senses in Pre-modern Europe. In: Kambaskovic, D. (eds) Conjunctions of Mind, Soul and Body from Plato to the Enlightenment. Studies in the History of Philosophy of Mind, vol 15. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9072-7_18
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