Abstract
Research on health inequalities in the United States indicates that women, racial and ethnic minorities, and people of lower socioeconomic position are often at a health disadvantage compared to men, whites and those of higher socioeconomic position. However, these patterns are not uniform and appear contingent upon the dimension of inequality, the health outcome examined, and contextual factors. We show how attending to key social psychological processes helps illuminate the relationships between social inequalities and health, shedding light on these complex patterns. We review research on six key factors that have been proposed to explain health inequalities—stress exposures, environmental exposures, psychological dispositions, social relations, health behaviors, and health care interactions—as well as social comparison processes. Social psychological theories and concepts underscore that macro-level inequalities affect health and well-being for reasons other than material deprivations, and point to the importance of interpersonal interactions, identities, and symbolic meanings as interpretive processes that shape health inequalities.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Research on health inequalities encompasses other dimensions of stratification such as immigrant status and sexual identity (Alegria et al. 2008; Cho et al. 2004; Saewyc 2011). Because the social psychological arguments that are invoked are similar, we emphasize these three key dimensions of stratification here.
- 2.
Our review is necessarily selective. Literally thousands of studies of health inequalities have been published just in the past decade, many of which offer some social psychological insight. To keep our review manageable, we focus primarily on studies that explicitly invoke social psychological theories and concepts. Even within this narrow group of studies, space limitations prevent us from including all relevant citations.
- 3.
The terms “social class,” “socioeconomic status,” and “socioeconomic position” are defined and used in various ways by health researchers. Of the three, the term socioeconomic position is the broadest. We use it here to avoid an unnecessary and unproductive alliance between our arguments and any more specific conceptualization.
- 4.
We follow Williams et al. (2010) in using race to refer to racial and ethnic categories, both because the boundaries between the two concepts are fuzzy and for the sake of parsimony.
- 5.
Several explanations have been proposed for the relatively high self-esteem observed among African Americans: that members of disadvantaged groups tend to compare themselves to similarly disadvantaged others; that they attribute failures or rejection to prejudice; that they devalue domains in which their group show relatively poor achievement; and that they hold positive group identities that protect self-esteem (see Twenge and Crocker 2002 for a review). However, why Latinos and Asian Americans report low self-esteem relative to whites and blacks, despite presumably having access to these same cognitive coping strategies, remains unclear.
- 6.
A related argument has been presented in research on income inequality. In a small sample of OECD countries, Wilkinson (1992) documented a negative correlation between income inequality and life expectancy that appeared to be independent of absolute levels of income. One explanation given for the association was that income inequality erodes social bonds and diminishes social cohesion. Research by Kawachi et al. is consistent with this explanation in that state-level income inequality is negatively associated with levels of trust, and levels of trust are strongly associated with age-adjusted mortality (e.g., Kawachi et al. 1997, 1999). However, the basic association has been challenged by studies that incorporate more comprehensive controls, fixed effects models, or multilevel models (e.g., Beckfield 2004; McLeod et al. 2004; Sturm and Gresenz 2002), calling the social cohesion argument into question.
- 7.
Although there is some debate over how much these habits and attitudes are products of success in formal educational settings, research on the role of non-cognitive traits in educational success demonstrates that teachers differentially reward students based on trustworthiness, dependability, and the like (Farkas 2003).
- 8.
Socialization arguments have been extended to understanding why immigrant health deteriorates with the length of time spent in the U.S. (Lara et al. 2005). The major theoretical framework that has been used to understand this observation is the negative acculturation hypothesis (also referred to as “unhealthy assimilation”). The negative acculturation hypothesis asserts that the health advantage of immigrants declines as they begin to acculturate to American society and adopt the unhealthy lifestyles of their U.S. counterparts (Hunt et al. 2004; Lara et al. 2005; Schwartz et al. 2010).
- 9.
While McKinlay (1996) identifies a disease that is under-recognized in women, other scholars have highlighted the over-production of disease in women through the medicalization of normal reproductive functions (e.g., pregnancy, childbirth, menstruation, menopause). By treating common and ordinary aspects of women’s reproductive lives as disease, the medical profession constructs an understanding of women as “sicker” than men which, in turn, affects women’s personal interpretations of their reproductive lives and, presumably, their self-reports of health (Conrad and Barker 2010; Riska 2003). In short, professional understandings of disease influence personal interpretations and the care that people receive in ways that reinforce those understandings.
References
Addis, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003). Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. American Psychologist, 58(1), 5–14.
Adler, N. E., & Rehkopf, D. H. (2008). U.S. disparities in health: Descriptions, causes, and mechanisms. Annual Review of Public Health, 29, 235–252.
Adler, N. R., & Stewart, J. (2010). Health disparities across the lifespan: Meaning, methods, and mechanisms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 5–23.
Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., et al. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49(1), 15–24.
Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G., & Ickovics, J. R. (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, white women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 586–592.
Ajzen, I., & Madden, T. J. (1986). Prediction of goal-directed behavior: Attitudes, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22(5), 453–474.
AlegrĂa, M., Mulvaney-Day, N., Torres, M., Polo, A., Cao, Z., & Canino, G. (2007). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders across Latino subgroups in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 68–75.
AlegrĂa, M., Canino, G., Shrout, P. E., Woo, M., Duan, N., Vila, D., et al. (2008). Prevalence of mental illness in immigrant and non-immigrant U.S. Latino groups. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(3), 359–369.
Andersen, R. M. (1995). Revisiting the behavioral model and access to medical care: Does it matter? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(1), 1–10.
Aneshensel, C. S., Frerichs, R. R., & Clark, V. A. (1981). Family roles and sex differences in depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 379–393.
Aneshensel, C. S., Rutter, C. M., & Lachenbruch, P. A. (1991). Social Structure, Stress, and Mental Health: Competing Conceptual and Analytic Models. American Sociological Review, 56, 166–178.
Angel, R., & Thoits, P. (1987). The impact of culture on the cognitive structure of illness. Culture, Medicine & Psychiatry, 11(4), 465–494.
Anglin, D. M., Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2006). Racial differences in stigmatizing attitudes toward people with mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 57(6), 857–862.
Antonucci, T. C., & Jackson, J. S. (1983). Physical health and self-esteem. Family and Community Health, 6(2), 1–9.
Arber, S., McKinlay, J., Adams, A., Marceau, L., Link, C., & O’Donnell, A. (2006). Patient characteristics and inequalities in doctors’ diagnostic and management strategies relating to CHD: A video-simulation experiment. Social Science & Medicine, 62(1), 103–115.
Austin, W., & Walster, E. (1974). Reactions to confirmations and disconfirmations of equity and inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30(2), 208–216.
Ayala, G. X., Baquero, B., & Klinger, S. (2008). A systematic review of the relationship between acculturation and diet among Latinos in the United States: Implications for future research. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(8), 1330–1344.
Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Behavior, 31(2), 143–164.
Beckfield, J. (2004). Does income inequality harm health? New cross-national evidence. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45(3), 231–248.
Berkman, L. F., & Breslow, L. (1983). Health and ways of living. New York: Oxford University Press.
Berkman, L. F., & Syme, S. L. (1979). Social networks, host resistance and mortality: A nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents. American Journal of Epidemiology, 109(2), 186–204.
Berkman, L. F., Glass, T., Brissette, I., & Seeman, T. E. (2000). From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Social Science & Medicine, 51(6), 843–857.
Bickel, A., Carlson, S., & Nord, M. (1999). Household food security in the United States, 1995-1998. Advance report. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Washington, DC.
Boardman, J. D., Finch, B. K., Ellison, C. G., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (2001). Neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and drug use among adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(2), 151–165.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1985). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). New York: Greenwood.
Braveman, P. A., Cubbin, C., Egerter, S., Williams, D. R., & Pamuk, E. (2010).Socio-economic disparities in health in the United States: What the patterns tell us. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl 1), S186–S196.
Broussard, C. A. (2010). Research regarding low-income single mothers’ mental and physical health: A decade in review. Journal of Poverty, 14(4), 443–451.
Browning, C. R., & Cagney, K. A. (2002). Neighborhood structural disadvantage, collective efficacy, and self-rated physical health in an urban setting. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(4), 383–399.
Brulle, R. J., & Pellow, D. N. (2006). Environmental justice: Human health and environmental inequalities. Annual Review of Public Health, 27(1), 103–124.
Cagney, K. A., Browning, C. R., & Wen, M. (2005). Racial disparities in self-rated health at older ages: What difference does the neighborhood make? Journals of Gerontology, 60B(4), 181–190.
Carpiano, R. M. (2007). Actual or potential neighborhood resources for health: What can Bourdieu offer for understanding mechanisms linking social capital to health? In I. Kawachi, S. V. Subramanian, & D. Kim (Eds.), Social capital and health (pp. 83–93). New York: Springer.
Carpiano, R. M., Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2008). Social inequality and health: Future directions for the fundamental cause explanation. In A. Lareau & D. Conley (Eds.), Social class: How does it work (pp. 232–263). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Caspi, A., Bolger, N., & Eckenrode, J. (1987). Linking person and context in the daily stress process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 184–195.
Cho, Y., Frisbie, W. P., Hummer, R. A., & Rogers. R. G. (2004). Nativity, duration of residence, and the health of Hispanic adults in the United States. International Migration Review, 38(1), 184–211.
Cockerham, W. C. (2005). Health lifestyle theory and the convergence of agency and structure. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(1), 51–87.
Cockerham, W. C., Hinote, B. P., & Abbott, P. (2006). Psychological distress, gender, and health lifestyles in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine. Social Science & Medicine, 63(9), 2381–2394.
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120.
Conrad, P., & Barker, K. K. (2010). The social construction of illness: Key insights and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), S67–S79.
Corsaro, W. A., & Fingerson, L. (2003). Development and socialization in childhood. In J. Delameter (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 125–156). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: A theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(10), 1385–1401.
Cubbin, C., & Winkleby, M. A. (2005). Protective and harmful effects of neighborhood-level deprivation on individual-level health knowledge, behavior changes, and risk of coronary heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology, 162(6), 559–568.
Cummings, J., & Jackson, P. B. (2008). Race, gender, and SES disparities in self-assessed health, 1974–2004. Research on Aging, 30(2), 137–168.
Cutrona, C. E., Wallace, G., & Wesner. K. A. (2006). Neighborhood characteristics and depression: An examination of stress processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(4), 188–192.
Davey Smith, G., Hart, C., Blane, D., & Hole, D. (1998). Adverse socioeconomic conditions in childhood and cause specific adult mortality: Prospective observational study. British Medical Journal, 316(7145), 1631–1651.
DeMaris, A., Mahoney, A., & Pargament, K. I. (2010). Sanctification of marriage and general religiousness as buffers of the effects of marital inequity. Journal of Family Issues, 31(10), 1255–1278.
Denton, M., Prus, S., & Walters, V. (2004). Gender differences in health: A Canadian study of psychosocial, structural and behavioural determinants of health. Social Science & Medicine, 58(12), 2585–2600.
Devine, C. M., Sobal, J., Bisogni, C. A., & Connors, M. (1999). Food choices in three ethnic groups: Interactions of ideals, identities, and roles. Journal of Nutrition Education, 31(2), 86–93.
DiClemente, R., Salazar, L., & Crosby, R. (2011). Health behavior theory for public health. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett.
Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1997). Social comparisons and subjective well-being. In B. P. Buunk & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: perspectives from social comparison theory (pp. 329–357). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Diez-Roux, A. V., & Mair, C. (2010). Neighborhoods and health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 125–145.
Dow, W. H., & Rehkopf, D. H. (2010). Socioeconomic gradients in health in international and historical context. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 24–36.
Dubowitz, T., Heron, M., Basurto-Davila, R., Bird, C. E., Lurie, N., & Escarce, J. J. (2011). Racial/ethnic differences in U.S. health behaviors: A decomposition analysis. American Journal of Health Behavior, 35(3), 290–304.
Eibner, C., & Evans, W. N. (2005). Relative deprivation, poor health habits, and mortality. Journal of Human Resources, XL(3), 591–620.
Eisler, R. M. (1995). The relationship between masculine gender role stress and men’s health risk: The validation of a construct. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 207–228). New York: Basic Books.
Elder, G. H. Jr., George, L. K., & Shanahan, M. J. (1996). Psychosocial stress over the life course. In H. B. Kaplan (Ed.), Psychosocial stress: Perspectives on structure, theory, life-course, and methods (pp. 247–292). San Diego: Academic Press.
Ennett, S. T., Bauman, K. E., Hussong, A., Faris, R., Foshee, V. A., Cai, L., et al. (2006). The peer context of adolescent substance use: Findings from social network analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(2), 159–186.
Farkas, G. (2003). Cognitive skills and noncognitive traits and behaviors in stratification processes. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 541–562.
Farmer, M. M., & Ferraro, K. F. (2005). Are racial disparities in health conditional on socioeconomic status? Social Science & Medicine, 60(1), 191–204.
Fiscella, K., Franks, P., Gold, M. R., & Clancy, C. M. (2000). Inequality in quality: Addressing socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic disparities in health care. Journal of the American Medical Association, 83(19), 2579–2584.
Forthofer, M. S., Janz, N. K., Dodge, J. A., & Clark, N. M. (2001). Gender differences in the associations of self-esteem, stress, and social support with functional health status among older adults with heart disease. Journal of Women & Aging, 13(1), 19–36.
Franks, P., & Fiscella, K. (2002). Effect of patient socioeconomic status on physician profiles for prevention, disease management, and diagnostic testing costs. Medical Care, 40(8), 717–724.
Franzini, L., & Fernandez-Esquer, M. E. (2006). The association of subjective social status and health in low-income Mexican-origin individuals in Texas. Social Science & Medicine, 63(3), 788–804.
Franzini, L., Ribble, J. C., & Keddie, A. M. (2001). Understanding the Hispanic paradox. Ethnicity and Disease, 11(3), 496–518.
Frisbie, W. P., Cho, Y., & Hummer, R. A. (2001). Immigration and the health of Asian and Pacific Islander adults in the United States. American Journal of Epidemiology, 153(4), 372–380.
Frone, M. R. (2000). Work-family conflict and employee psychiatric disorders: The National Comorbidity Survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(6), 888–895.
Gee, G. C. (2002). A multilevel analysis of the relationship between institutional and individual racial discrimination and health status. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4), 615–623.
Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 826–833.
Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Reis-Bergan, M., & Russell, D. W. (2000). Self-esteem, self-serving cognitions, and health risk behavior. Journal of Personality, 68(6), 1177–1201.
Glanz, K., & Bishop, D. B. (2010). The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions. Annual Review of Public Health, 31, 399–418.
Glass, J., & Fujimoto, T. (1994). Housework, paid work, and depression among husbands and wives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(2), 179–191.
Gorman, B. K., & Read, J. C. (2006). Gender disparities in adult health: An examination of three measures of morbidity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(2), 95–110.
Gorman, B. K., & Sivaganesan, A. (2007). The role of social support and integration for understanding socioeconomic disparities in self-rated health and hypertension. Social Science & Medicine, 65(5), 958–975.
Gray-Little, B., & Hafdahl, A. R. (2000). Factors influencing racial comparisons of self-esteem: A quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(1), 26–54.
Grzywacz, J. G. (2000). Work-family spillover and health during midlife: Is managing conflict everything? American Journal of Health Promotion, 14(4), 236–243.
Grzywacz, J. G., Almeida, D. M., Neupert, S. D., & Ettner, S. L. (2004). Socioeconomic status and health: A micro-level analysis of exposure and vulnerability to daily stressors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45(1), 1–16.
Harrell, J. P., Hall, S., & Taliaferro, J. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 243–248.
Harvey, R. D., & Afful, S. E. (2011). Racial typicality, racial identity, and health behaviors: A case for culturally sensitive health interventions. Journal of Black Psychology, 37(2), 164–184.
Hatch, S. L., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (2007). Distribution of traumatic and other stressful life events by race/ethnicity, gender, SES, and age: A review of the research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 40(3-4), 313–332.
Hayward, M. D., & Gorman, B. K. (2004). The long arm of childhood: The influence of early-life social conditions on men’s mortality. Demography, 41(1), 87–107.
Hayward, M. D., Miles, T. P., Crimmins, E. M., & Yang, Y. (2000). The significance of socioeconomic status in explaining the racial gap in chronic health conditions. American Sociological Review, 65(6), 910–930.
Hegtvedt, K. A. (1990). The effects of relationship structure on emotional responses to inequity. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53(3), 214–228.
Henley, J. R., Danziger, S. K., & Offer, S. (2005). The contribution of social support to the material well-being of low-income families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(1), 122–140.
Herd, P., Goesling, B., & House, J. S. (2007). Socioeconomic position and health: The differential effects of education versus income on the onset versus progression of health problems. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48(3), 223–238.
Hertz, R. P., Unger, A. N., Cornell, J. A., & Saunders, E. (2005). Racial disparities in hypertension prevalence, awareness, and management. Archives of Internal Medicine, 165(18), 2098–2104.
Hinterlong, J. E. (2006). Race disparities in health among older adults: Examining the role of productive engagement. Health & Social Work, 31(4), 275–288.
Homans, G. C. (1974). Social behavior: Its elementary forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
House, J. S. (1981). Social structure and personality. In M. Rosenberg & R. H. Turner (Eds.), Social psychology: Sociological perspectives (pp. 525–561). New York: Basic Books.
House, J. S., & Williams, D. R. (2000). Understanding and reducing socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in health. In B. D. Smedley & S. L. Syme (Eds.), Institute of medicine, promoting health: intervention strategies from social and behavioral research (pp. 81–124). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hnizdo, E., Sullivan, P. A., Bang, K. M., & Wagner, G. (2002). Association between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and employment by industry and occupation in the U.S. population: A study of data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. American Journal of Epidemiology, 156(8), 738–746.
Hughes, M. E., & Waite, L. J. (2009). Marital biography and health at mid-life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(3), 344–358.
Hummer, R. A., Rogers, R. G., Nam, C. B., & Ellison, C. G. (1999). Religious involvement and U.S. adult mortality. Demography, 36(2), 273–285.
Hunt, L. M., Schneider, S., & Comer, B. (2004). Should “acculturation” be a variable in health research? A critical review of research on U.S. Hispanics. Social Science & Medicine, 59(5), 973–986.
Huynh, V. W. (2012). Ethnic microaggressions and the depressive and somatic symptoms of Latino and Asian American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(7), 831–846.
Indian Health Service. (2011). Indian health disparities fact sheet. http://www.ihs.gov/PublicAffairs/IHSBrochure/Disparities.asp. Accessed 23 Apr 2012.
Karasek, R., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work. New York: Basic Books.
Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. (2000). Social cohesion, social capital, and health. In L. F. Berkman (Ed.), Social epidemiology (pp. 174–190). New York: Oxford University Press.
Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., Lochner, K., & Prothrow-Stith, D. (1997). Social capital, income inequality, and mortality. American Journal of Public Health, 87(9), 1491–1498.
Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., & Glass, R. (1999). Social capital and self-rated health: A contextual analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 89(8), 1187–1193.
Kawachi, I., Adler, N. E., & Dow, W. H. (2010). Money, schooling and health: Mechanisms and casual evidence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 56–68.
Kelley-Moore, J. A., & Ferraro, K. F. (2004). The black/white disability gap: Persistent inequality in later life? Journals of Gerontology, 59B(1), S34–S43.
Kessler, R. C., & McLeod, J. D. (1984). Sex differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events. American Sociological Review, 49(5), 620–631.
Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40(3), 208–230.
Kiecolt, K. J., Hughes, M., & Keith, V. M. (2008). Racial, social relationships, and mental health. Personal Relationships, 15(2), 229–245.
Kiecolt, K. J., Hughes, M., & Keith, V. M. (2009). Can a high sense of control and John Henryism be bad for mental health? The Sociological Quarterly, 50(4), 693–714.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., McGuire, L., Robles, T. F., & Glaser, R. (2002). Emotions, morbidity, and mortality: New perspectives from psychoneuroimmunology. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 83–107.
Kleinman, A. M. (1977). Depression, somatization, and the new cross-cultural psychiatry. Social Science & Medicine, 11(1), 3–10.
Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J., & Buswell, B. N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125(4), 470–500.
Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (1983). Work and personality: An inquiry into the impact of social stratification. Norwood: Ablex Publications.
Koos, E. (1954). The health of Regionsville: What the people felt and did about it. New York: Columbia University Press.
Krause, N. (2002). Church-based social support and health in old age: Exploring variations by race. Journals of Gerontology, 57B(6), S332–S347.
Krieger, N. (2012). Methods for the scientific study of discrimination and health: An ecosocial approach. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 936–945.
Kubzansky, L. D., & Kawachi, I. (2000). Going to the heart of the matter: Do negative emotions cause coronary heart disease? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 48(4-5), 323–337.
Kuh, D., Hardy, R., Lagenberg, C., Richards, J., & Wadsworth, M. E. J. (2002). Mortality in adults aged 26–54 years related to socioeconomic conditions in childhood and adulthood: Post war birth cohort study. British Medical Journal, 325(7372), 1076–1080.
Lantz, P. M., House, J. S., Lepkowski, J. M., Williams, D. R., Mero, R. P., & Chen, J. (1998). Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: Results from a nationally representative prospective study of US adults. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 279(21), 1703–1708.
Lara, M., Gamboa, C., Kahramanian, M. I., Morales, L. S., & Hayes, D. (2005). Acculturation and Latino health in the United States: A review of the literature and its sociopolitical context. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 367–397.
LaVeist, T. A. (1993). Segregation, poverty, and empowerment: Consequences for African Americans. The Milbank Quarterly, 71(1), 41–64.
Lee, R. E., & Cubbin, C. (2002). Neighborhood context and youth cardiovascular health behaviors. American Journal of Public Health, 92(3), 428–436.
Lennon, M. C., & Rosenfield, S. (1994). Relative fairness and the division of housework: The importance of options. The American Journal of Sociology, 100(2), 506–531.
Lin, N., & Peek, M. K. (1999). Social networks and mental health. In A. Horwitz & T. L. Scheid (Eds.), A handbook for the study of mental health (pp. 241–258). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Link, B. J., & Phelan, J. (1995). Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(Extra Issue), 80–94.
Liu, H., & Umberson, D. (2008). The times they are a changin’: Marital status and health differentials from 1972 to 2003. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(3), 239–253.
Longmore, M. A., & DeMaris, A. (1997). Perceived inequity in intimate relationships: The moderating effect of self-esteem. Social Psychology Quarterly, 60(2), 172–184.
Lutfey, K. E., & Freese, J. (2005). Toward some fundamentals of fundamental causality: Socioeconomic status and health in the routine clinic visit for diabetes. American Journal of Sociology, 110(5), 1326–1372.
Lutfey, K., & Mortimer, J. (2003). Development and socialization through the adult life course. In J. Delameter (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 183–204). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Lutfey, K. E., Eva, K. W., Gerstenberger, E., Link, C. L., & McKinlay, J. B. (2010). Physician cognitive processing as a source of diagnostic and treatment disparities in coronary heart disease: Results of a factorial priming experiment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), 16–29.
Lynch, J. W., Kaplan, G. A., & Salonen, J. T. (1997). Why do poor people behave poorly? Variation in adult health behaviours and psychosocial characteristics by stages of the socioeconomic lifecourse. Social Science & Medicine, 44(6), 809–819.
Lynch, J. W., Davey-Smith, G., Kaplan, G. A., & House, J. S. (2000). Income inequality and mortality: Importance to health of individual income, psychosocial environment, or material conditions. British Medical Journal, 320(7243), 1200–1104.
Markides, K. S., & Coreil, J. (1986). The health of Hispanics in the southwestern United States: Epidemiological paradox. Public Health Reports, 101(3), 253–265.
Marmot, M. G., Fuhrer, R., Ettner, S. L., Marks, N. F., Bumpass, L. L., & Ryff, C. D. (1998). Contribution of psychosocial factors to socioeconomic differences in health. Milbank Quarterly, 76(3), 403–448.
Martin, S. P. (2006). Trends in marital dissolution by women’s education in the United States. Demographic Research, 15(20), 537–560.
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Matthews, K. A., Gallo, L. C., & Taylor, S. E. (2010). Are psychosocial factors mediators of socioeconomic status and health connections? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 146–173.
Mayer, S. E., & Jencks, C. (1989). Growing up in poor neighborhoods: How much does it matter? Science, 243(4897), 1441–1445.
McDonough, P. (2000). Job insecurity and health. International Journal of Health Services, 30(3), 453–476.
McGee, R., & Williams, S. (2000). Does low self-esteem predict health compromising behaviours among adolescents? Journal of Adolescence, 23(5), 569–582.
McGinnis, J. M., Williams-Russo, P., & Knickman, J. R. (2002). The case for more active policy attention to health promotion. Health Affairs, 21(2), 78–93.
McKinlay, J. B. (1996). Some contributions from the social system to gender inequalities in heart disease. The Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37(1), 1–26.
McLeod, J. D. (2012). The meanings of stress: Expanding the stress process model. Society and Mental Health, 2(3), 172–186.
McLeod, J. D., & Almazan, E. P. (2003). Connections between childhood and adulthood. In J. Mortimer & M. S. Shanahan (Eds.), Handbook of the life course (pp. 391–412). New York: Kluwer/Plenum.
McLeod, J. D., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Call, K. T. (2004). Income inequality, race, and child well-being: An aggregate analysis in the 50 United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45(3), 249–264.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Brashears, M. E. (2006). Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades. American Sociological Review, 71(3), 353–375.
Miech, R. A., & Shanahan, M. J. (2000). Socioeconomic status and depression over the life course. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41(2), 162–176.
Miech, R. A., Eaton, W. W., & Brennan, K. (2005). Mental health disparities across education and sex: A prospective analysis examining how they persist over the life course. Journals of Gerontology, 60B (Special Issue 2), S93–S98.
Miner, S., & Tolnay, S. (1998). Barriers to voluntary organization membership: An examination of race and cohort differences. The Journals of Gerontology, 53B(5), S241–S248.
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1989). Explaining the social patterns of depression: Control and problem solving—or support and talking? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30(2), 206–219.
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2001). Age and the effect of economic hardship on depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(2), 132–150.
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2003). Education, social status, and health. New York: Adeline de Gruyter.
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2005). Education, cumulative advantage and health. Ageing International, 30(1), 27–36.
Morenoff, J. D., House, J. S., Hansen, B. B., Williams, D. R., Kaplan, G. A., & Hunte, H. E. (2007). Understanding social disparities in hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment and control: The role of neighborhood context. Social Science & Medicine, 65(9), 1853–1866.
Mossakowski, K. N. (2003). Coping with perceived discrimination: Does ethnic identity protect mental health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 318–331.
Nathanson, C. A. (1977). Sex roles as variables in preventive health behaviors. Journal of Community Health, 3(2), 142–155.
Neighbors, H. W. (1985). Seeking professional help for personal problems: Black Americans’ use of health and mental health services. Community Mental Health Journal, 21(3), 156–166.
Neighbors, H. W. (1997). The (mis)diagnosis of mental disorder in African Americans. African American Research Perspectives, 3(1), 1–11.
Neighbors, H. W., Trierweiler, S. J., Ford, B. C., & Muroff, J. R. (2003). Racial differences in DSM diagnosis using a semi-structured instrument: The importance of clinical judgment in the diagnosis of African Americans. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(3), 237–256.
Oates, G. L., & Goode, J. (2013). Racial differences in effects of religiosity and mastery on psychological distress: Evidence from national longitudinal data. Society and Mental Health, 3(1), 40–58.
O’Neil, J. M., Good, G. E., & Holmes, S. (1995). Fifteen years of theory and research on men’s gender role conflict: New paradigms for empirical research. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 164–206). New York: BasicBooks.
Ostrove, M. J., Alder, N. E., Kuppermann, M., & Washington, A. E. (2000). Objective and subjective assessments of socioeconomic status and their relationship to self-rated health in an ethnically diverse sample of pregnant women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 613–618.
Oyserman, D., Fryberg, S. A., Yoder, N. (2007). Identity-based motivation and health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 1011–1027.
Pascoe, E. A., & Richman, L. S. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554.
Patel, K. V., Eschbach, K., Rudkin, L. L., Peek, M. K., & Markides, K. S. (2003). Neighborhood context and self-rated health in older Mexican Americans. Annals of Epidemiology, 13(9), 620–628.
Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 337–356.
Pescosolido, B. A. (1992). Beyond rational choice: The social dynamics of how people seek help. American Journal of Sociology, 97(4), 1096–1138.
Pescosolido, B. A. (2011). Organizing the sociological landscape for the next decades of health and health care research: The network episode model III-R as cartographic subfield guide. In B. A. Pescosolido, J. K. Martin, J. D. McLeod & A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of health, illness and healing (pp. 39–66). New York: Springer.
Pham-Kanter, G. (2009). Social comparisons and health: Can having richer friends and neighbors make you sick? Social Science & Medicine, 69(3), 335–344.
Pickett, K. E., & Pearl, M. (2001). Multilevel analyses of neighbourhood socioeconomic context and health outcomes: A critical review. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 55(2), 111–122.
Piliavin, J. A., & Siegl, E. (2007). Health benefits of volunteering in the Wisconsin longitudinal study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48(4), 450–464.
Power, C., Matthews, S., & Manor, O. (1998). Inequalities in self-rated health: Explanations from different stages of life. Lancet, 351(9108), 1009–1014.
Pudrovska, T., Schieman, S., Pearlin, L. I., & Nguyen, K. (2005). The sense of mastery as a mediator and moderator in the association between economic hardship and health in late life. Journal of Aging and Health, 17(5), 634–660.
Pugliesi, K. (1995). Work and well-being: Gender differences in the psychological consequences of employment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(1), 57–71.
Ramirez-Valles, J., Zimmerman, M. A., & Newcomb, M. D. (1998). Sexual risk among youth: Modeling the influence of prosocial activities and socioeconomic factors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 39(3), 237–253.
Read, J. G., & Gorman, B. K. (2011). Gender and health revisited. In B. A. Pescosolido, J. K. Martin, J. D. McLeod & A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of health, illness and healing (pp. 411–428). New York: Springer.
Riska, E. (2003). Gendering the medicalization thesis. Advances in Gender Research, 7, 61–89.
Robert, S. A., & Lee, K. Y. (2002). Explaining race differences in health among older adults: The contribution of community socioeconomic context. Research on Aging, 24(6), 654–683.
Robert, S. A., Cagney, K. A., & Weden, M. M. (2010). A life course approach to the study of neighborhoods and health. In C. E. Bird, P. Conrad, & A. M. Fremont (Eds.), Handbook of medical sociology (6th ed., pp. 124–143). Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press.
Rosenberg, M., & Pearlin, L. I. (1978). Social class and self-esteem among children and adults. American Journal of Sociology, 84(1), 53–77.
Rosenfield, S. (1992). The costs of sharing: Wives’ employment and husbands’ mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33(3), 213–225.
Rosenfield, S. (1999). Splitting the difference: Gender, the self, and mental health. In C. S. Aneshensel & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 209–221). New York: Springer.
Rosenstock, I. M., Strecher, V. J., & Becker, M. H. (1988). Social learning theory and the health belief model. Health Education Quarterly, 15(2), 175–183.
Ross, C. E., & Bird, C. E. (1994). Sex stratification and health lifestyle: Consequences for men’s and women’s perceived health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(2), 161–178.
Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (1988). Child care and emotional adjustment to wives’ employment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29(2), 127–138.
Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (1989). Explaining the social patterns of depression: Control and problem solving or support and talking. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30(2), 206–219.
Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (1992). Households, employment, and the sense of control. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55(3), 217–235.
Ross, C. E., & Wu, C. (1995). The links between education and health. American Sociological Review, 60(5), 719–745.
Saewyc, E. M. (2011). Research on adolescent sexual orientation: Development, health disparities, stigma, and resilience. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 256–272.
Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J. D., & Gannon-Rowley, T. (2002). Assessing “neighborhood effects”: Social processes and new directions in research. Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 443–478.
Sapolsky, R. M. (2005). The influence of social hierarchy on primate health. Science, 308(5722), 648–652.
Sarkisian, N., & Gerstel, N. (2004). Kin support among Blacks and Whites: Race and family organization. American Sociological Review, 69(6), 812–837.
Schieman, S. (2003). Socioeconomic status and the frequency of anger across the life course. Sociological Perspectives, 46(2), 207–222.
Schieman, S., Whitestone, Y. K., & Van Gundy, K. (2006). The nature of work and the stress of higher status. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(3), 242–257.
Schnittker, J. (2004). Psychological factors as mechanisms for socioeconomic disparities in health: A critical appraisal of four common factors. Biodemography and Social Biology, 51(1-2), 1–23.
Schwartz, S., & Meyer, I. H. (2010). Mental health disparities research: The impact of within and between group analyses on tests of social stress hypotheses. Social Science & Medicine, 70(8), 1111–1118.
Schwartz, S., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237–251.
Schwarzer, R., & Fuchs, R. (1995). Changing risk behaviors and adopting health behaviors: The role of self-efficacy beliefs. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 259–288). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 302–317.
Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. L. (2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(2), 187–216.
Shuey, K. M., & Willson, A. E. (2008). Cumulative disadvantage and black-white disparities in life-course health trajectories. Research on Aging, 30(2), 200–225.
Simon, R. W. (1992). Parental role strains, salience of parental identity and gender differences in psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33(1), 25–35.
Simon, R. W. (1995). Gender, multiple roles, role meaning, and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(2), 182–194.
Simon, R. W., & Lively, K. (2010). Sex, anger and depression. Social Forces, 88(4), 543–568.
Singh-Manoux, A., Adler, N. E., & Marmot, M. G. (2003). Subjective social status: Its determinants and its association with measures of ill-health in the Whitehall II study. Social Science & Medicine, 56(6), 1321–1333.
Sprecher, S. (2001). A comparison of emotional consequences and changes in equity over time using global and domain-specific measures of equity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 18(4), 477–501.
Starfield, B., Gérvas, J., & Mangin, D. (2012). Clinical care and health disparities. Annual Review of Public Health, 33, 89–106.
Sternthal, M. J., Slopen, N., & Williams, D. R. (2010). Racial disparities in health: How much does stress really matter? Dubois Review, 8(1), 95–113.
Stets, J. E. (2003). Justice, emotion, and identity theory. In P. J. Burke, T. J. Owens, R. Serpe, & P. A. Thoits (Eds.), Advances in Identity theory and research (pp. 105–122). New York: Kluwer.
Stinson, D. A., Logel, C., Zanna, M. P., Holmes, J. G., Cemeron, J. J., Wood, J. V., et al. (2008). The cost of lower self-esteem: Testing a self- and social-bonds model of health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(3), 412–428.
Stronks, K., van der Mheen, H., Looman, C. W. N., & Mackenbach, J. P. (1998). The importance of psychosocial stressors for socio-economic inequalities in perceived health. Social Science & Medicine, 46(4-5), 611–623.
Sturm, R., & Gresenz, C. R. (2002). Relations of income inequality and family income to chronic medical conditions and mental health disorders: National survey. British Medical Journal, 324(7328), 20–23.
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., et al. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed, pp. 73–98). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Takeuchi, D. T., Chun, C., Gong, F., & Shen, H. (2002). Cultural expressions of distress. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine, 6(2), 221–235.
Takeuchi, D. T., Zane, N., Hong, S., Chae, D. H., Gong, F., Gee, G. C., et al. (2007). Immigration-related factors and mental disorders among Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 84–90.
Takeuchi, D. T., Walton, E., & Leung, M. C. (2010). Race, social contexts and health: Examining geographic spaces and places. In C. E. Bird, P. Conrad, & A. M. Fremont (Eds.), Handbook of medical sociology (pp. 92–105). Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press.
Taylor, S. E., Repetti, R. L., & Seeman, T. (1997). Health psychology: What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin? Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 11–47.
Theorell, T. (2000). Working conditions and health. In L. F. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social epidemiology (pp. 95–117). New York: Oxford University Press.
Thoits, P. A. (1986). Multiple identities: Examining gender and marital status differences in distress. American Sociological Review, 51(2), 259–272.
Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(Extra Issue), 53–79.
Thoits, P. A. (2010). Stress and health: Major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(Extra Issue), S41–S53.
Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(2), 145–161.
Turner, R. J., & Marino, F. (1994). Social support and social structure: A descriptive epidemiology. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35(3), 193–212.
Turner, R. J., Wheaton, B., & Lloyd, D. A. (1995). The epidemiology of social stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 60(1), 104–125.
Turner, R. J., Taylor, J., & Van Gundy, K. (2004). Personal resources and depression in the transition to adulthood: Ethnic comparisons. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45(1), 34–52.
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2002). Self-esteem and socioeconomic status: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(1), 59–71.
Twenge, J., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race, ethnicity, and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing whites, blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans, including a commentary on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128(3), 371–408.
Umberson, D. (1992). Gender, marital status and the social control of health behaviors. Social Science & Medicine, 34(8), 907–917.
Umberson, D., & Montez, J. K. (2010). Social relationships and health: Major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(Extra Issue), S54–S66.
van Ryn, M., & Burke, J. (2000). The effect of patient race and socioeconomic status on physicians’ perceptions of patients. Social Science & Medicine, 50(6), 813–828.
van Ryn, M., Burgess, D. J., Dovidio, J. F., Phelan, S. M., Saha, S., Malat, J., Griffin, J. M., Fu, S. S., & Perry, S. (2011). The impact of racism on clinician cognition, behavior, and clinical decision making. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 199–218.
Verbrugge, L. M. (1985). Gender and health: An update on hypotheses and evidence. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26(3), 156–182.
Verbrugge, L. M., & Wingard, D. L. (1987). Sex differentials in health and mortality. Women & Health, 12(2), 103–145.
Voydanoff, P., & Donnelly, B. W. (1999). Multiple roles and psychological distress: The intersection of the paid worker, spouse, and parent roles with the role of the adult child. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61(3), 725–738.
Wadsworth, M. E. J. (1997). Health inequalities in the life course perspective. Social Science and Medicine, 44(6), 859–869.
Walster, E., Walster, G. W., & Berscheid, E. (1978). Equity: Theory and research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Wang, J., Leu, J., & Shoda, Y. (2011). When the seemingly innocuous “stings”: Racial microaggressions and their emotional consequences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(12), 1666–1678.
Warner, D., & Hayward, M. D. (2006). Early life origins of the race gap in men’s mortality. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(3), 209–226.
Warren, J. R., Hoonakker, P., Carayon, P., & Brand, J. (2004). Job characteristics as mediators in SES-health relationships. Social Science & Medicine, 59(7), 1367–1378.
Weeden, K. A., & Grusky, D. B. (2005). The case for a new class map. American Journal of Sociology, 111(1), 141–212.
Wilkinson, R. G. (1992). National mortality rates: The impact of inequality? American Journal of Public Health, 82(8), 1082–1084.
Williams, D. R. (1990). Socioeconomic differentials in health: A review and redirection. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53(2), 81–99.
Williams, D. R. (2005). The health of U.S. racial and ethnic populations. Journal of Gerontology, 60B (Special Issue 2), 53–62.
Williams, D. R., Gonzalez, H. M., Neighbors, H., Nesse, R., Abelson, J. M., Sweetman, J., et al. (2007). Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites: Results from the National Survey of American Life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(3), 305–315.
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 20–47.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351.
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 200–208.
Williams, D. R., Mohammed, S. A., Leavell, J., & Collins, C. (2010). Race, socioeconomic status and health: Complexities, ongoing challenges and research opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 69–101.
Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wright, C. E., & Steptoe, A. (2005). Subjective socioeconomic position, gender and cortisol responses to waking in an elderly population. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(6), 582–590.
Yip, T., Gee, G. C., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2008). Racial discrimination and psychological distress: The impact of ethnic identity and age among immigrant and United States-born Asian adults. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 787–800.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Sciences + Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
McLeod, J., Erving, C., Caputo, J. (2014). Health Inequalities. In: McLeod, J., Lawler, E., Schwalbe, M. (eds) Handbook of the Social Psychology of Inequality. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9002-4_28
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9002-4_28
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-017-9001-7
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-9002-4
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)