Abstract
In this chapter, we explore the role of socialization in the production, maintenance, and reduction of social class, race, and gender inequalities. We review three prominent social psychological theories that attempt to explain socialization processes: symbolic interactionism, social structure and personality, and life course theories. While socialization processes occur across a range of contexts, we select four institutional settings—families, schools, work, and sport—to illustrate how socialization processes contribute to, and sometimes reduce, inequality. We end by highlighting some possible directions for future research. In particular, we point to the need for cross-national research on socialization processes that foster attainment and mobility, research that considers new and emerging contexts of socialization, such as the virtual world of the internet, and studies of socialization processes that engender resistance to inequality.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
While the culture of poverty argument is most frequently associated with black families, proponents have applied this theoretical orientation to other minority groups as well. In fact, the term was coined by Oscar Lewis (1959) in his ethnographic account of families living in a Mexico City slum.
- 2.
Of course, unobserved heterogeneity could still cause spuriousness even in highly stringent models incorporating many previously measured parental personality and behavioral characteristics
- 3.
This collaborative utilizes 29 data sets across 10 countries: Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States.
- 4.
Similar patterns are found for age of day care enrollment in Denmark (Bingley and Westergad-Nielsen 2012).
- 5.
However, other factors, such as race, gender, and sexual orientation, also influence whether an athlete receives media praise or scrutiny.For example, some sport scholars (e.g., Griffin 1998; Kane and Lenskyj 1998) argue that female athletes who can be portrayed as “heterosexy,” or the wholesome girl next door, receive disproportionately more media attention as compared with other female athletes.
References
Alwin, D. F. (1989). Changes in qualities valued in children in the United States, 1964–1984. Social Science Research, 18(3), 195–236.
Ambady, N., Shih, M., & Kim, A. (2001). Stereotype susceptibility in children: Effects of identity activation on quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 12(5), 385–390.
Anderson, E. (2008). “I used to think women were weak”: Orthodox masculinity, gender segregation, and sport. Sociological Forum, 23(2), 257–280.
Barron, J. M., Ewing, B. T., & Waddell, G. R. (2000). The effects of high school athletic participation on education and labor market outcomes. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 82(3), 409–421.
Baum, A. (2006). Eating disorders in the male athlete. Sports Medicine, 36(1), 1–6.
Becker, H. S. (1952). The career of the public school teacher. American Journal of Sociology, 57(5), 470–477.
Becker, H. S. (1953). Becoming a marihuana user. American Journal of Sociology, 59(3), 235–242.
Becker, H. S., Geer, B., & Hughes, E. C. (1968). Making the grade: The academic side of college life. New York: Wiley.
Becker, H. S., Geer, B., Hughes, E. C., & Strauss, A. L. (1961). Boys in white: Student culture in medical school. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Benedict, R. (1938). Continuities and discontinuities in cultural conditioning. Psychiatry, 1(2), 161–167.
Billingsley, A. (1999). Mighty like a river: The black church and social reform. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bingley, P., & Westergard-Nielsen, N. (2012). Intergenerational transmission and day care. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 190–203). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Bourdieu, P. (1978). Sport and social class. Social Science Information, 17(6), 819–840.
Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradictions of economic life. New York: Basic Books.
Bradbury, B., Corak, M., Waldfogel, J., & Washbrook, E. (2012). Inequality in early childhood outcomes. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 87–119). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Bratti, M., Cappellari, L., Groh-Samberg, O., & Logmann, H. (2012). School tracking and intergenerational transmission of education. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: the intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 311–344). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Brim, O. G., & Wheeler, S. (1966). Socialization after childhood: Two essays. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Broadbent, J. P. (2005). Identity dynamics: Motivation and movement mobilization in the U.S. and Japan. In C. Tilly & M. Kousis (Eds.), Threats and opportunities in contentious politics (pp. 48–69). Boulder: Paradigm Publishers.
Brown, T. N., Tanner-Smith, E. E., Lesane-Brown, C. L., & Ezell, M. E. (2006). Child, parent, and situational correlates of familial ethnic/race socialization. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(1), 14–25.
Burton, L. M., Obeidallah, D. O., & Allison, K. (1996). Ethnographic perspectives on social context and adolescent development among inner-city African American teens. In R. Jessor, A. Colby, & R. Shweder (Eds.), Essays on ethnography and human development (pp. 395–418). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Carrell, S. E., Page, M. E., & West, J. E. (2010). Sex and science: How professor gender perpetuates the gender gap. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(3), 1101–1144.
Chambliss, D. F. (1989). The mundanity of excellence: An ethnographic report on stratification and Olympic swimmers. Sociological Theory, 7(1), 70–86.
Chase, L. F. (2006). (Un)disciplined bodies: A Foucautian analysis of women’s rugby. Sociology of Sport Journal, 23(3), 229–247.
Chase, M. A., & Dummer, G. M. (1992). The role of sports as a social status determinant for children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63(4), 418–424.
Coleman, J. S. (1961). The adolescent society. New York: Free Press.
Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A., Weinfeld, F. D., et al. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Elder, G. H., Jr., Lorenz, F. O., Simons, R. L., & Whitbeck. L. B. (1993). Family economic stress and adjustment of early adolescent girls. Developmental Psychology, 29(2), 206–219.
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Matthews, L. S., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (1999). Pathways of economic influence on adolescent adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(4), 519–540.
Conger, R. D., & Dogan, S. J. (2007). Social class and socialization in families. In J. E. Grusec & P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 433–460). New York: Guilford Press.
Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Jr., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons. R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65(2), 541–561.
Cook, K. S., & Rice, E. (2003). Social exchange theory. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 53–76). New York: Kluwer Academic.
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Correll, S. J., & Ridgeway, C. L. (2003). Expectation states theory. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 29–51). New York: Kluwer Academic.
Corsaro, W. A., & Fingerson, L. (2003). Development and socialization in childhood. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 125–155). New York: Kluwer Academic.
Crabbe, T. (2000). A sporting chance?: Using sport to tackle drug use and crime. Drugs: Education, Prevention, and Policy, 7(4), 381–391.
Crissey, S. R., & Honea, J. C. (2006). The relationship between athletic participation and perceptions of body size and weight control in adolescent girls: The role of sport type. Sociology of Sport Journal, 23(3), 248–272.
Cullen, F. T., & Wright, J. P. (2002). Criminal justice in the lives of American adolescents: Choosing the future. In J. T. Mortimer & R. W. Larson (Eds.), The changing adolescent experience: Societal trends and the transition to adulthood (pp. 88–128). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Daniels, E., & Leaper, C. (2006). A longitudinal investigation of sport participation, peer acceptance, and self-esteem among adolescent girls and boys. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 55(11), 875–880.
DeKosky, S. T., Ikonomovic, M. D., & Gandy, S. (2010). Traumatic brain injury - football, warfare, and long-term effects. The New England Journal of Medicine, 363(14), 1293–1296.
DeMartini, J. R. (1983). Social movement participation: Political socialization, generational consciousness, and lasting effects. Youth and Society, 15(2), 195–223.
Dewey, J. (1922). Human nature and conduct. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Diemer, M. A., Kauffman, A., Koenig, N., Trahan, E., & Hsieh, C. A. (2006). Challenging racism, sexism, and social injustice: Support for urban adolescents’ critical consciousness development. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(3), 444–460.
Diemer, M. A., Hsieh, C. A., & Pan, T. (2008). School and parental influences on sociopolitical development among poor adolescents of color. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(2), 317–344.
Dionigi, R. (2006). Competitive sport as leisure in later life: Negotiations, discourse, and aging. Leisure Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 28(2), 181–196.
Dreeben, R. (1968). On what is learned in school. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Duncan, G. J., Bergman, L., Duckworth, K., Kokko, K., Lyyra, A., Metzger, M., Pulkkinen, L., & Simonton, S. (2012). Child skills and behaviors in intergenerational inequality. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 207–234). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Dumas, C., & LeFranc, A. (2012). Early schooling and later outcomes. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 164–189). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Eccles, J. S. (1993). School and family effects on the ontogeny of children’s interests, self-perceptions, and activity choice. In J. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1992: Developmental perspectives on motivation (pp. 145–208). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Eccles, J. S. (1994). Understanding women’s educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(4), 585–609.
Eccles, J. S. (2007). Families, schools, and developing achievement-related motivations and engagement. In J. E. Grusec & P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 665–691). New York: Guilford Press.
Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998). Motivation to succeed. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Volume Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. III, 5th ed., pp. 1017–1095). New York: Wiley.
Eder, D., Evans, C. C., & Parker, S. (1995). School talk: Gender and adolescent culture. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Eide, E. R., & Ronan, N. (2001). Is participation in high school athletics an investment or a consumption good? Economics of Education Review, 20(5), 431–442.
Eitle, T. M., & Eitle, D. J. (2002). Race, cultural capital, and the educational effects of participation in sports. Sociology of Education, 75(2), 123–146.
Elder, G. H., Jr. (1973). Children of the great depression. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Elder, G. H., Jr., & Conger, R. D. (2000). Children of the land: Adversity and success in Rural America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (2003). The first-grade transition in life course perspective. In J. T. Mortimer & M. J. Shanahan (Eds.), Handbook of the life course (pp. 229–250). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Ermisch, J., Jantti, M., & Smeeding, T. (Eds.). (2012a). From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Ermisch, J., Jantti, M., & Smeeding, T. (2012b). Socioeconomic gradients in children’s outcomes. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 53–83). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Ermisch, J., Jantti, M., Smeeding, T., & Wilson, J. A. (2012c). Advantage in comparative perspective. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 3–31). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Ewing, B. T. (2007). The labor market effects of high school athletic participation: Evidence from wage and fringe benefit differentials. Journal of Sports Economics, 8(3), 255–265.
Ewing, M. E., & Seefeldt, V. (2002). Patterns of participation in American agency-sponsored youth sports. In F.L. Smoll & R.E. Smith (Eds.), Children and youth in sport: A biopsychological perspective (2nd ed., pp. 39–60). Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Ezzell, M. B. (2009). “Barbie dolls” on the pitch: Identity work, defensive othering, and inequality in women’s rugby. Social Problems, 56(1), 111–131.
Ferrales, G., & Fine, G. A. (2006). Sociology as a vocation: Reputations and group cultures in graduate school. American Sociologist, 36(2), 57–75.
Findlay, L. C., & Bowker, A. (2009). The link between competitive sport participation and self-concept in early adolescence: A consideration of gender and sport orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(1), 29–40.
Fine, G. A. (1979). Small groups and culture creation: The idioculture of Little League Baseball teams. American Sociological Review, 44(5), 733–745.
Fine, G. A. (1987). With the boys: Little league baseball and preadolescent culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fine, G. A. (1983). Shared fantasy: Role playing games as social worlds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fine, G. A. (2004). Adolescence as a cultural toolkit: High school debate and the repertoires of childhood and adulthood. Sociological Quarterly, 45(1), 1–20.
Fine, G. A., & DeSoucey, M. (2005). Joking cultures: Humor themes as social regulation in group life. Humor, 18(1), 1–22.
Frey, J. H., & Eitzen, S. (1991). Sport and society. Annual Review of Sociology, 17, 503–522.
Furstenberg, F., Jr., Cook, T., Eccles, J. S., Elder, G. H., Jr., & Sameroff, A. (1999). Managing to make it: Urban families in adolescent success. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Garfinkel, H. (1956). Conditions of successful degradation ceremonies. American Journal of Sociology, 61(5), 420–424.
Garrett, R. (2004). Gendered bodies and physical identities. In J. Evans, B. Davies, & J. Wright (Eds.), Body knowledge and control: Studies in the sociology of physical education and health (pp. 140–156). New York: Routledge.
Gecas, V. (1981). Contexts of socialization. In M. Rosenberg & R. H. Turner (Eds.), Social psychology: Sociological perspectives (pp. 165–199). New York: Basic Books.
Gecas, V., & Schwalbe, M. L. (1983). Beyond the looking-glass self: Social structure and efficacy-based self-esteem. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46(2), 77–88.
Goffman, E. (1956). Embarassment and social organization. American Journal of Sociology, 62(3), 264–271.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City: Anchor Books.
Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates. Garden City: Anchor Books.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Good, J. J., Woodzicka, J. A., & Wingfield, L. C. (2010). The effects of gender stereotypic and counter-stereotypic textbook images on science performance. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150(2), 132–147.
Griffin, P. (1998). Strong women, deep closets: Lesbians and homophobia in sport. Champaign: Human Kinetics.
Grindstaff, L., & West, E. (2006). Cheerleading and the gendered politics of sport. Social Problems, 53(4), 500–518.
Hargreaves, J. (2007). Olympic women: A struggle for recognition. In J. O’Reilly & S. K. Cahn (Eds.), Women and sports in the United States: A documentary reader (pp. 3–14). Boston: Northeastern University Press.
Hartmann, D. (2000). Race, culture, and the case of sport. Newsletter of the Sociology of Culture Section of the American Sociological Association, 14(1), 3–6.
Hartmann, D. (2008). High school sports participation and educational attainment: Recognizing, assessing, and utilizing the relationship. Report to the LA84 Foundation.
Hawkins, R., & Mulkey, L. M. (2005). Athletic investment and academic resilience in a national sample of African American females and males in the middle grades. Education and Urban Society, 38(1), 62–88.
Heckman, J., Urzua, S., & Stixtud, J. (2006). The effects of cognitive and noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24, 411–482.
Hermanowicz, J. C. (2009). Lives in science: How institutions affect academic careers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hewitt, J., & Stokes, R. (1975). Disclaimers. American Sociological Review, 40(1), 1–11.
House, J. (1981). Social structure and personality. In M. Rosenberg & R. Turner (Eds.), Sociological perspectives in social psychology (pp. 525–561). New York: Basic Books.
House, J. (1977). The three faces of social psychology. Sociometry, 40(2), 161–177.
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. S., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770.
Inkeles, A., & Smith, D. H. (1974). Becoming modern: Individual changes in six developing countries. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
James, W. (1892). Psychology. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Johnson, M. K., & Mortimer, J. T. (2011). Origins and outcomes of judgments about work. Social Forces, 89(4), 1239–1260.
Johnson, M. K., & Mortimer, J. T. (2012). Work values, early career difficulties, and the U.S. economic recession. Social Psychology Quarterly, 75(3), 242–267.
Jussim, L., Eccles, J. S., & Madon, S. (1996). Social perception, social stereotypes, and teacher expectations: Accuracy and the quest for the powerful self-fulfilling prophecy. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 281–388). New York: Academic Press.
Kane, M. J., & Lenskyj, H. (1998). Media treatment of female athletes: Issues of gender and sexualities. In L. A. Wenner (Ed.), MediaSport: Cultural sensibilities and sport in the media age (pp. 186–201). London: Routledge.
Kane, M. J., & Snyder, E. E. (1989). Sport typing: The social ‘containment’ of women in sport. Arena Review, 13(2), 77–96.
Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
Kinney, D. (1993). From nerds to normals: The recovery of identity among adolescents from middle school to high school. Sociology of Education, 66(1), 21–40.
Kohn, A. (1986). No contest: The case against competition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Kohn, M. L. (1969). Class and conformity: A study in values. Homewood: Dorsey Press.
Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (1969). Class, occupation, and orientation. American Sociological Review, 34(5), 659–678.
Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (1973). Occupational experience and psychological functioning: An assessment of reciprocal effects. American Sociological Review, 38(1), 97–118.
Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (1983). Work and personality: An inquiry into the impact of social stratification. Norwood: Ablex.
Lamont, M., & Small, M. L. (2008). How culture matters: Enriching our understanding of poverty. In A. C. Lin & D. R. Harris (Eds.), The colors of poverty: Why racial and ethnic disparities persist (pp. 76–102). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Leaper, C., & Friedman, C. K. (2007). The socialization of gender. In J. E. Grusec & P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization research (pp. 561–587). New York: Guilford Press.
Lee, J. C., & Mortimer, J. T. (2009). Family socialization, economic self-efficacy, and the attainment of financial independence in early adulthood. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 1(1), 45–62.
Leonard, D. J. (2004). The next M. J. or the next O.J.? Kobe Bryant, race, and the absurdity of colorblind rhetoric. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 28(3), 284–313.
Lewis, O. (1959). Five families: Mexican case studies in the culture of poverty. New York: Basic Books.
Linton, R. (1942). Age and sex categories. American Sociological Review, 7(5), 589–603.
Little League (2010). The mission of little league. http://www.littleleague.org/learn/about/historyandmission/mission.htm. Accessed 26 Jul 2012.
Long, J., & Caudill, S. (1991). The impact of participation in intercollegiate athletics on income and graduation. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 73(3), 525–531.
Lorence, J., & Mortimer, J. T. (1985). Job involvement through the life course: A panel study of three age groups. American Sociological Review, 50(5), 618–638.
Lutfey, K., & Mortimer, J. T. (2003). Development and socialization through the adult life course. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 183–202). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Magnuson, K., Waldfogel, J., & Washbrook, E. (2012). SES gradients in skills during the school years. In J. Ermisch, M. Jantti, & T. Smeeding (Eds.), From parents to children: The intergenerational transmission of advantage (pp. 235–261). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954–969.
Martin, K. A. (1998). Becoming a gendered body: Practices of preschools. American Sociological Review, 63(4), 494–511.
Martin, T. F., White, J. M., & Perlman, D. (2003). Religious socialization: A test of the channeling hypothesis of parental influence on adolescent faith maturity. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18(2), 169–187.
Marx, K. (1844). A contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm. Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, Accessed 6 May 2014.
Massoglia, M., & Uggen, C. (2010). Settling down and aging out: Toward an interactionist theory of desistance and the transition to adulthood. American Journal of Sociology, 116(2), 543–582.
Mayer, S. (1997). What money can’t buy: Family income and children’s life chances. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
McAdam, D. (1988). Freedom summer. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDevitt, M., & Chaffee, S. (2002). From top-down to trickle-up influence: Revisiting assumptions about the family in political socialization. Political Communication, 19(3), 281–301.
McEwin, C. K., & Dickinson, T. S. (1996). Placing young adolescents at risk in interscholastic sports programs. The Clearing House, 69(4), 217–221.
McLaughlin, H. (2013). Playing like a boy: Gender, high school sport participation, and early career success. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Minnesota.
McLeod, J. D., & Kaiser, K. (2004). Childhood emotional and behavioral problems and educational attainment. American Sociological Review, 69(5), 636–658.
Mead, G. H. (1931). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mead, M. (1928). Coming of age in Samoa. New York: Harper Collins.
Messner, M. A. (1988). Sports and male domination: The female athlete as contested ideological terrain. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5(3), 197–211.
Messner, M. A., Duncan, M. C., & Jensen, K. (1993). Separating the men from the girls: The gendered language of televised sports. Gender and Society, 7(1), 121–137.
Miller, J. (1988). Jobs and work. In N. J. Smelser (Ed.), Handbook of sociology (pp. 327–359). Newbury Park: Sage.
Miller-Jones, D. (1989). Culture and testing. American Psychologist, 44(2), 360–366.
Mills, C. W. (1940). Situated actions and the vocabularies of motive. American Sociological Review, 5(6), 904–913.
Mortimer, J. T. (1975). Occupational value socialization in business and professional families. Sociology of Work and Occupations, 2(1), 29–53.
Mortimer, J. T. (1976). Social class, work, and the family: Some implications of the father’s occupation for familial relations and sons’ career decisions. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 38(2), 241–256.
Mortimer, J. T. (2003). Working and growing up in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M. D. (1996). Adolescents, work, and family: An intergenerational developmental analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Mortimer, J. T., & Kumka, D. (1982). A further examination of the ‘occupational linkage hypothesis.’ Sociological Quarterly, 23(1), 3–16.
Mortimer, J. T., & Krueger, H. (2000). Pathways from school to work in Germany and the United States. In M. Hallinan (Ed.), Handbook of the sociology of education (pp. 475–497). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Mortimer, J. T., & Lorence, J. (1979). Work experience and occupational value socialization: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Sociology, 84(6), 1361–1385.
Mortimer, J. T., & Moen, P. (2012). The social construction of age through the life course: Precarious identity and enactment of age-graded social roles. Paper presented at the 2012 Meetings of the American Sociological Association, Denver, CO (August 17–20).
Mortimer, J. T., Pimentel, E. E., Ryu, S., Nash, K., & Lee, C. (1996). Part-time work and occupational value formation in adolescence. Social Forces, 74(4), 1377–1418.
Mortimer, J. T., & Staff, J. (2004). Early work as a source of developmental discontinuity during the transition to adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 1047–1070.
O’Barr, W. M. (2000). Language and patriarchy. In D. Vannoy (Ed.), Gender mosaics: Social perspectives (pp. 106–113). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Press.
Office of Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor. (1965). The Negro family: The case for national action (“The Moynihan Report”). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Parsons, T. (1951). The social system. Glencoe: Free Press.
Pate, R. R., Trost, S. G., Levin, S., & Dowda, M. (2000). Sport participation and health-related behaviors among US youth. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 154(9), 904–911.
Patterson, O. (2000). Taking culture seriously: A framework and an Afro-American illustration. In S. P. Huntington & L. E. Harrison (Eds.), Culture matters: How values shape human progress (pp. 202–218). New York: Basic Books.
Picou, J. S., McCarter, V., & Howell, F. M. (1985). Do high school athletics pay? Some further evidence. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2(1), 72–76.
Preves, S., & Mortimer, J. T. (2013). Socialization for primary, intimate, and work relationships in the adult life course. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., pp. 151–187). New York: Springer.
Raffaelli, M., & Ontai, L. L. (2004). Gender socialization in Latino/a families: Results from two retrospective studies. Sex Roles, 50(5–6), 287–299.
Reardon, S. F. (2011). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In G. J. Duncan & R. J. Murnane (Eds.), Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 91–115). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Regnerus, M. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (2003). Staying on track in school: Religious influence in high and low risk settings. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(4), 633–649.
Rohlinger, D. A., & Snow, D. A. (2003). Social psychological perspectives on crowds and social movements. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 503–527). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1966). Teachers’ expectancies: Determinants of pupils’ IQ gains. Psychological Reports, 19(1), 115–118.
Roth, A. R., & Basow, S. A. (2004). Femininity, sports, and feminism: Developing a theory of physical liberation. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 28(3), 245–265.
Ryu, S., & Mortimer, J. T. (1996). The ‘occupational linkage hypothesis’ applied to occupational value formation in adolescence. In J. T. Mortimer & M. D. Finch (Eds.), Adolescents, work and family: An intergenerational developmental analysis (pp. 167–190). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Sabo, D., Miller, K. E., Melnick, M. J., Farrell, M. P., & Barnes, G. M. (2005). High school athletic participation and adolescent suicide. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 40(1), 5–23.
Schwalbe, M. L. (1986). The psychosocial consequences of natural and alienated labor. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Schoon, I., Bynner, J., Joshi, H., Parsons, S., Wiggins, R. D., & Sacker, A. (2002). The influence of context, timing, and duration of risk experiences for the passage from childhood to midadulthood. Child Development, 73(5), 1486–1504.
Scott, M. B., & Lyman, S. M. (1968). Accounts. American Sociological Review, 33(1), 46–62.
Scott-Dixon, K. (2008). Big girls don’t cry: Fitness, fatness, and the production of feminist knowledge. Sociology of Sport Journal, 25(1), 22–47.
Shanahan, M. J. (2000). Pathways to adulthood in changing societies: Variability and mechanisms in life course perspective. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 667–692.
Shulman, J. L., & Bowen, W. G. (2000). The game of life: College sports and educational values. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Siegenthaler, K. L., & Gonzalez, G. L. (1997). Youth sports as serious leisure: A critique. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 21(3), 298–314.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 612–629.
Stryker, S. (1980). Symbolic interactionism: A social structural version. Menlo Park: Benjamin/Cummings.
Tanenbaum, L. (2008). Slut! Growing up female with a bad reputation. In J. Z. Spade & C. G. Valentine (Eds.), The kaleidoscope of gender: Prisms, patterns, and possibilities, second edition (pp. 209–216). Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.
Theberge, N. (1981). A critique of critiques: Radical and feminist writings on sport. Social Forces, 60(2), 341–353.
Thorne, B. (1994). Gender play: Girls and boys in school. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Troutman, K. P., & Dufur, M. J. (2007). From high school jocks to college grads: Assessing the long-tem effects of high school sport participation on females’ educational attainment. Youth & Society, 38(4), 443–462.
Warburton, D. E. R., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. D. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: The evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174(6), 801–809.
Washington, R. E., & Karen, D. (2001). Sport and society. Annual Review of Sociology, 27 , 187–212.
Weinstein, E. A., & Deutschberger, P. (1963). Some dimensions of altercasting. Sociometry, 26(4), 454–466.
Whyte, W. F. (1955). Street corner society (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wigfield, A., Tonks, S., & Eccles, J. S. (2004). Expectancy-value theory in cross-cultural perspective. In D. McInerney & S. Van Etten (Eds.), Research on sociocultural influences on motivation and learning, vol. 4: Big theories revisited (pp. 165–198). Greenwich: Information Age Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Sciences + Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mortimer, J., McLaughlin, H. (2014). Theoretical and Substantive Approaches to Socialization and Inequality in Social Psychology. In: McLeod, J., Lawler, E., Schwalbe, M. (eds) Handbook of the Social Psychology of Inequality. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9002-4_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9002-4_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-017-9001-7
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-9002-4
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)