Abstract
The methodological propositions and categories set out in Chap. 2 are now used to outline a theory of social and historical processes. The theory is centered on the interaction of civilization and functional and ontological imperatives and, more generally, on the operation of the binary ‘necessity’/‘choice-possibility’. Another backbone of the proposed interpretation is the succession innovation-structural reorganization in the motion of human societies. The theory is aimed at providing a consistent representation of the long run behavior of societies, be they stationary, quasi-stationary or modern (i.e. containing an increasing evolutionary impetus). The interpretation is strengthened by a distinction between historical ages based on our methodological categories. Hence an analysis is drawn of some major problems and organizational necessities that the present historical age is obliged to meet but that nevertheless are opposed by powerful interests, an opposition that constitutes a major drama of the present world. Finally, a simple formalized representation of our model of interaction between innovation and structural reorganization, together with its inherent radical uncertainty, is drawn with reference to the economy.
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Notes
- 1.
Disregard for the notions of ontological imperative and civilization probably represent the main lacuna of the evolutionary paradigm – both in its Darwinian and Lamarckian form – for the study and understanding of human societies.
- 2.
Faced with far-reaching changes in the general conditions of development, the existing civilizations either give up the fight and make an honourable surrender or, if they resist, are eventually undone by their paralyzing systemic inefficiencies.
- 3.
The following exposition is an analytical structure that can be applied also to various aspects of social development, such as economic development, artistic development, scientific development, and so on.
- 4.
In a way, this succession of the two moments of innovative drive and organizational structuring is found not only in societies but also in the life of individuals and, let us repeat, even in artistic and scientific processes.
- 5.
A deeper meditation on this matter, based on a variety of historical examples, may be found in (Fusari 2000).
- 6.
The role of geography in conditioning the birth of the ancient poleis, as well as the ancient bureaucratic and autocratic empires, is well known.
- 7.
In primitive societies this condition was made possible by isolation from the rest of the world, while in caste societies it has been mainly the effect of the doctrine of karma.
- 8.
See (Ekstedt and Fusari 2010) where, among other things, a formalized model of such behavior is set out.
- 9.
On long waves, see (Fusari and Reati 2013).
- 10.
The less general and less permanent functional imperatives may be said to correspond to historical sub-phases.
- 11.
In a society still incapable of scientific organization, this attraction will come about in what we might call Darwinian forms; that is, will be the product of a universal struggle for life. In societies that have scientifically developed social theory, it will take place in explicit, planned forms.
- 12.
It is evident, in particular, that individuals endowed with exceptional skills are even inclined to work hard for nothing in order that they may use their skills, as many and sometimes dramatic historical examples show. It is a moral and functional mistake to consider those individuals as entitled to receive exceptional monetary rewards that often lead to the dissipation of these exceptional qualities through the corrupting effects of luxury.
- 13.
See Ekstedt and Fusari 2010, chapter 8: ‘Toward a non-capitalist market system; spontaneous order and organization’.
- 14.
(Ietto-Gillies 2012).
- 15.
See the reference in the footnote above.
- 16.
An extended treatment of the question of power may be found in Fusari 2008.
- 17.
- 18.
(Schumpeter 1934).
- 19.
- 20.
For empirical applications, a measure of radical uncertainty can be expressed as the volatility of expectations (see later). Also, the standard deviation of profit rates across firms seems to offer a good variable for the analysis of dynamic competition and the business cycle since it expresses the dimension of adaptive profit opportunities as connected to limited knowledge and market disequilibria.
- 21.
The interaction innovation-structural organization here discussed goes well beyond economics, as previously seen.
- 22.
It may be useful to underline that the measures of dynamic competition based on the rapidity of contraction of the standard deviation of profit rates across firms (as, for instance, in: (Mueller 1990) and others, or (Odagiri 1994)) only consider adaptive competition or, more precisely, parameter b3 of the above system. They ignore the other parameters and hence give a poor approximation to the intensity of competition and economic dynamism, as dynamic competition consists both in innovation and adaptation.
- 23.
The fact that only two observations were out liers, that the model is dynamic, and that there is no reason to assume that the cause, if any, of these anomalies were the same, suggested that the use of a dummy variable was inappropriate.
- 24.
See Fusari, Human adventure, 2000.
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Fusari, A. (2014). Social Development and Historical Processes. In: Methodological Misconceptions in the Social Sciences. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8675-1_4
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