Advances in the Net-Zero Paradigm and Resilience of Net-Zero Strategic Plans for Water Systems

Abstract

This chapter describes recent advances of water systems in the net-zero paradigm, across industrial, government, and military applications. The elements of the chapter are definitions, innovations, assessment methods, best practices, case studies, evaluation of investments, strategic plans, and challenges for future work. The chapter benefited from discussion and shared experience of about 50 participants in a NATO workshop convened in Sonderborg, Denmark, in February 2015. The chapter authors were the participants of the workshop specifically asked to address issues of water systems.

Appendices

Appendices

10.1.1 Appendix A: Glossary

10.1.1.1 Water Classifications

• Wastewater is a term not directly addressed or used in the NATO Standard, however the term logically describes all forms of water that are a byproduct of human use. The UK GBA Standards define two categories of wastewater: black water and grey water.

• Black water is wastewater containing fecal matter and/or urine.

• Grey water is defined by the NATO standard as “water that is the leftover from baths, showers, kitchens and washing machines.” The international standard organization (ISO) adds to the definition by explicitly excluding wastewater that contains excreta from water closets. Grey water from kitchens requires special consideration as there are challenges with purification because of high levels of fats, greases, and organic matter. Bathroom grey water, from baths, showers, and hand washing is less polluted and commonly collected for treatment and reuse.

• Non-potable water is defined by NATO as water that is not safe to drink. In the operational environment it is water from any source that has not been approved by the local medical authority for use as drinking water. Some examples of non-potable water uses include, but are not limited to, industrial process applications such as (but not limited to) cooling towers and boilers, landscape irrigation, and agricultural irrigation.

• Reclaimed wastewater is wastewater treated to non-potable level that can be reused in applications such as irrigation and cooling towers.

• Contaminated water contains disease-producing organisms, poisonous substances, or NBC agents and is therefore unfit for human consumption.

• Polluted water contains substances such as garbage, sewage, industrial/agriculture waste or mud, which makes it objectionable because of appearance, taste or odor.

• Freshwater source is a water source (surface or ground water) that has a total dissolved solids concentration of less than 1000 mg per liter (1000 ppm).

• Alternative water is non-freshwater, from and alternative discharge. As such, alternative water is not obtained from a surface water source, ground water source, or purchased reclaimed water from a third party. Alternative water can include rainwater harvested on site, sump pump water harvesting, gray water, air cooling condensate, reject water from water purification systems, water reclaimed on site, or water derived from other water reuse strategies.

• Potable water is water that is fit for human consumption and therefore safe to drink. Potable water is, from a medical point of view, suitable for: drinking, the preparation of food, and all the domestic uses, including personal hygiene. It does not contain chemical, microbiological, radiological or other contaminants in concentrations that may result in adverse health effects.

• Palatable water is cool, aerated, significantly free from colour, turbidity, taste, and odour, and is generally pleasing to the senses. Palatable water is not necessarily potable and may contain disease- or illness-causing substances.

10.1.1.2 Usage Classifications

• Drinking water is potable water. Drinking water must also be palatable so personnel will be willing to drink it in adequate quantities.

• Sanitary water is water to be used for personal hygiene.

• Technical water is water that is required for a variety of purposes such as fire fighting, decontamination, cooling of vehicles and machinery, as well as construction work.

• Emergency potable water is, from a medical point of view, safe to drink with for a maximum period of up 7 days, but not longer due to performance degradation.

• Non-consumptive water use occurs when water that is diverted from its freshwater source is returned to the point of diversion in the same quantity and quality as the original diversion. The term “same quantity” means that the volume of water diverted from the water source is the equivalent volume of water that is returned to the water source. The term “same quality” means that the water discharged is in compliance with effluent limitations contained in applicable discharge permits and that the designated use and the associated water quality criteria for the water source are maintained.

10.1.1.3 Packaging Classifications

• Packaged field water is water that is treated in order to make it potable and sealed in plastic pouches or bottles by military units or contracted services for ultimate distribution to individual personnel for drinking

• Bottled water is potable water that is sealed in plastic or glass bottles by commercial businesses and produced for human consumption.

• Raw water is fresh, brackish or seawater that has not been previously used, treated, or purified. Raw water must be treated and/or disinfected prior to use as potable or sanitary water.

10.1.1.4 Water Treatments

• Disinfection is a water treatment process in which pathogenic (disease producing) organisms are killed, destroyed or otherwise inactivated. Common methods of disinfecting drinking water include boiling, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and various procedures using chlorine, chlorine dioxide, iodine, or ozone.

• Water purification is the process to remove suspended solids, undesirable chemicals and (micro) biological contaminants.

10.1.1.5 Other Definitions

• Net zero water is limiting the consumption of freshwater resources and returning water back to the same watershed so not to deplete the groundwater and surface water resources of that region (quantity and quality).

• Water security means that every person has access to enough safe water at affordable cost to lead a clean, healthy, and productive life, while ensuring that the natural environment is protected and enhanced.

• Water reuse occurs when water which is discharged from one process is then utilized as a water source for a different process, which results in a substitution of the use of an existing freshwater source.

• Water recycle occurs when discharge water from a process is cycled through the same process more than once (Fig. 10.11).

  Fig. 10.11

  

  Water usage illustration

10.1.2 Appendix B: Case Studies of Wastewater Innovation and Technologies

The following case studies are described in more detail by Dalgaard et al. (2013).

10.1.2.1 Attractive Solutions for Villages, China

The Chinese government has placed high priority on decentralised wastewater treatment in their latest 5-year plan. Currently 570,000 villages in China lack wastewater treatment facilities and therefore three Danish water companies in collaboration with Suzhou Sewage Administration prepared a development project for small decentralised wastewater treatment plants where the treated wastewater can be reused for a variety of purposes such as irrigation, watering of parks, car washing, etc. The applied technology is now concluded to be economically attractive and during 2013 the three involved companies will develop the Chinese market with local partners, setting up production and sales of the decentralised solutions (Courtesy: DHI, BioKube and Ultraaqua).

10.1.2.2 Turning Wastewater into Process Water, Denmark and Germany

Treatment of industrial wastewater is often most efficiently carried out at internal process streams at individual industries instead of as end-of-pipe treatment. An example is the water used for “washing” of the smoke gasses emitted from coal-and biomass-fired power plants. The wastewater poses a great environmental risk and is also one of the most difficult types of wastewater to treat due to fluctuating concentrations of heavy metals, relatively high temperature, high acidity or alkalinity and high risk of precipitation of scales that clog treatment equipment. Today, power plants in Denmark and Germany use silicon carbide ceramic membranes, a state-of-the-art membrane technology totally resistant to aggressive chemicals, to treat the wastewater followed by reverse osmosis membranes, which can recover up to 90 % as clean water and concentrate the pollutants in the remaining 10 % of the wastewater. In the current case consumption of fresh water is reduced by 80 % but more importantly the operating costs associated with disposal of wastewater and chemical sludge are reduced by 90 % (Courtesy: LiqTech).

10.1.2.3 Expanding Manufacturing Capacity, Sweden

On-site wastewater treatment is sometimes beneficial solely for capacity reasons making industrial companies able to expand production in situations with limited capacity of the municipal wastewater plant. This was the situation for the Scandinavian dairy company Arla when they wanted to expand production at a milk powder factory in Sweden The municipal wastewater treatment plant was only able to handle 1000 m³ of the estimated increase of 1400 m³ a day. Scheduled to be in operation by summer 2013, a decentralised wastewater treatment plant has been constructed to treat the excess amount of 400 m³ meeting strict requirements for removal of nitrogen and phosphorous before discharge to the local river (Courtesy: Grundfos).

10.1.2.4 Treatment of Wastewater from Helicopter Wash, Denmark

The Karup Airbase in Denmark is home for close to 30 military and civil emergency response helicopters. Each time a helicopter is washed at the airbase 2–3 m³ of wastewater is generated. For a year the wastewater was discharged directly to the municipal sewer system, but then tests made by the water utility indicated an unacceptable level of cadmium – in fact around 0.4 kg cadmium were discharged a year. The initial solution for the airbase was to transport the wastewater by truck for appropriate treatment at a cost of 270 euro per cubic metre, but then an energy-efficient evaporation system to concentrate the wastewater was tested and found financially viable. With a payback time of only 2 years, the new system developed by a Danish cleantech company reduced annual wastewater discharge costs by 150,000 euro. Only a limited amount of concentrate is now transported away four times a year for safe treatment (Courtesy: Envotherm).

10.1.2.5 New Promising Water Separation Technology

Concentration of industrial wastewater is often an advantage as the treated water can be reused or directly discharged and disposal of wastewater is reduced to a minimum. A wide range of technologies for evaporation, centrifugal separation and filtration exists, but soon a new patented technology based on industrial bio-technology will appear. Invented and developed by a Danish cleantech company, the biomimetic membrane uses aquaporins just like nature, where aquaporin proteins are found in all living cells where they separate water molecules from other substances that could harm the cell. Hence for all practical purposes, the aquaporin proteins are impermeable to anything but water. The new technology makes 100 % clean water and is highly energy-efficient. It separates water from almost any aqueous liquid, even those where traditional technologies are inadequate, and thus makes it possible to remove for example small un-charged organic compounds such as urea, peptides, dyes, etc. The technology is now being field tested for different applications with partners around the world and membrane samples are available for testing upon request. The technology will enter pilot production in 2013 (Courtesy: Aquaporin).

10.1.3 Appendix C: Resources

U.S. Department of Energy Federal Energy Management Program. 2014 Best Management Practices for Water Efficiency: http://energy.gov/eere/femp/federal-water-efficiency-best-management-practices

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency WaterSense Best Management Practices: http://www.epa.gov/watersense/commercial/bmps.html

U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency joint initiative Laboratories for the 21st Century (Labs21): http://energy.gov/eere/femp/laboratories-21st-century

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers “Army Installations Water Sustainability Assessment: An Evaluation of Vulnerability to Water Supply” Report: http://www.aepi.army.mil/docs/whatsnew/ERDC-CERL_TR-09-38.pdf