Abstract
The Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) modelling tool was used to simulate trophic interactions in the Red Sea ecosystem, with emphasis on its fisheries. Time-dynamic simulations were run to quantify the impact of fisheries, which represent the main anthropogenic impact on the ecosystem. The model was fitted to a time series of observed catch and effort data to improve its ability to mimic changes in the Red Sea ecosystem. EwE was also used to predict the consequences of different fishing scenarios: maintaining the status quo, banning all fishing, and projecting into the future at the present growth rate of the fisheries. Monte Carlo simulations were used to examine the sensitivity of the predictions to changes in model input parameters and the risk of fish abundance falling below selected thresholds. Equilibrium surplus-yield analyses were carried out on the major groups affected by the fishery. Finally, the model was used to examine the conflict between artisanal and industrial fisheries in the Red Sea by running scenarios where the fishing effort of each of these sectors was doubled.
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Ainsworth CH, Varkey D, Pitcher TJ (2007) Ecosystem simulation models for the Bird’s head seascape, Papua, fitted to field data. In: Pitcher TJ, Ainsworth CH, Bailey M (eds) Ecological and economic analysis of marine ecosystems in the Bird’s head seascape, Papua, Indonesia: I. Fisheries Centre Research Reports, vol 15(5), Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, pp. 6–174
Aleem AA (1979) A contribution to the study of seagrasses along the Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia. Aquat Bot 7:71–78
Alias M (2003) Trophic model of the coastal fisheries ecosystem of the West Coast of Penisular Malaysia. In: Silvestre G, Garces L, Stobutzki I, Ahmed M, Valmonte-Santos RA, Luna C, Lachica-Alino L, Munro P, Christensen V, Pauly D (eds) Assessment, management and future directions for coastal fisheries in Asian countries. WorldFish Centre Conference Proceedings 67, Penang, Malaysia, pp 313–332
Anticamara JA, Watson R, Gelchu A, Pauly D (2011) Global fishing effort (1950–2010): trends, gaps, and implications. Fish Res 107(1–3):131–136
Antoine L, Blanchard F, Boucher J, Massé J, Morizur Y, Araia T, Mahmoud S, Wolday S (1997) Assessment and follow-up of the potential of fisheries resources in Eritrea, Winter campaign report (1996–1997). MOF-IFREMER-CFD, Massawa
Arias-González JE (1998) Trophic models of protected and unprotected coral reef ecosystems in the South of the Mexican Caribbean. J Fish Biol 53:236–255
Ateweberhan M (2004) Seasonal dynamics of coral reef algae in the southern Red Sea: functional group and population ecology. PhD thesis, University of Groningen, Groningen, 187 p
Beattie A, Sumaila U, Christensen V, Pauly D (2002) A model for the bioeconomic evaluation of marine protected area size and placement in the North Sea. Nat Resour Model 15(4):413–437
Beverton RJH, Holt SJ (1993) On the dynamics of exploited fish population. Chapman & Hall, London
Blindheim J (1984) Fishery resources surveys in P.D.R. Yemen, Somalia and Ethiopia, 11 Feb–21 Mar 1984. Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, p 44
Bouchon-Navaro Y, Bouchon C (1989) Correlations between chaetodontid fishes and coral communities of the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea). Environ Biol Fishes 25(1):47–60
Brey T (ed) (2001) Population dynamics in benthic invertebrates. A virtual handbook. Version 01.2. http://www.thomas-brey.de/science/virtualhandbook
Brodziak J, Link J (2002) Ecosystem-based fishery management: what is it and how can we do it? Bull Mar Sci 70(2):589–611
Browman HI (2000) ‘Evolution’ of fisheries science. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 208:299–313
Buchary E (1999) Evaluating the effect of the 1980 trawl ban in the Java Sea, Indonesia: an ecosystem based approach. MSc thesis, University of British Columbia, Resource Management and Environmental Studies, Vancouver, 134 p
Chaloupka MC, Limpus CL (2002) Survival probability estimates for the endangered loggerhead sea turtle resident in southern Great Barrier Reef waters. Mar Biol 140(2):267–277
Christensen V (1998) Fishery-induced changes in a marine ecosystem: insight from models of the Gulf of Thailand. J Fish Biol 53(A):128–142
Christensen V, Pauly D (1992) Ecopath II – a software for balancing steady-state ecosystem models and calculating network characteristics. Ecol Model 61:169–185
Christensen V, Pauly D (eds) (1993) Trophic models of aquatic ecosystems. ICLARM Conference Proceedings, No. 26, Manila, Phillipines, 390 p
Christensen V, Walters CJ (2004) Ecopath with Ecosim: methods, capabilities and limitations. Ecol Model 172(2–4):109–139
Christensen V, Walters CJ, Pauly D (2005) Ecopath with Ecosim a user’s guide. Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver
Christensen V, Walters CJ, Pauly D, Forrest R (2008) Ecopath with Ecosim version 6: user guide. Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Available at www.ecopath.org
Cox SP, Essington TE, Kitchell JF, Martell SJD, Walters CJ, Boggs C, Kaplan I (2002) Reconstructing ecosystem dynamics in the central Pacific Ocean, 1952–1998. II. A preliminary assessment of the trophic impacts of fishing and effects on tuna dynamics. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 59(11):1736–1747
Crossland CJ, Hatcher BG, Smith SV (1991) Role of coral reefs in global ocean production. Coral Reefs 10(2):55–64
Evans PGH (1987) Sea birds of the Red Sea. In: Edwards AJ, Head SM (eds) Red Sea. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 315–338
Frazier J, Salas S (1984) The status of marine turtles in the Egyptian Red Sea. Biol Conserv 30(1):41–67
Frazier J, Bertram GC, Evans PGH (1987) Turtles and marine mammals. In: Edwards AJ, Head SM (eds) Red Sea. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 288–314
Froese R, Pauly D (2014) FishBase. Available at: www.fishbase.org
Giudicelli M (1984) The Ethiopian fisheries: situation, development needs and opportunities. A report prepared for the Fishing Planning and Development Project, FAO, Rome, 157 p
Gladstone W, Krupp F, Younis M (2003) Development and management of a network of marine protected areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region. Ocean Coast Manag 46(8):741–761
Guénette S (2005) Models of Southeast Alaska. In: Guénette S, Christensen V (eds) Food web models and data for studying fisheries and environmental impacts on Eastern Pacific ecosystem. Fisheries Centre Research Reports, vol 13(1), Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, pp 106–178.
Guénette S, Christensen V, Pauly D (2008) Trophic modelling of the Peruvian upwelling ecosystem: towards reconciliation of multiple datasets. Prog Oceanogr 79(2–4):326–335
Head SM (1987) Corals and coral reefs of the Red Sea. In: Edwards AJ, Head SM (eds) Red Sea. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 128–151
Hilborn R, Walters CJ (1992) Quantitative fisheries stock assessment. Choice, dynamics and uncertainty. Chapman and Hall, New York
Jackson JBC, Kirby MX, Berger WH, Bjorndal KA, Botsford LW, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH, Cooke R, Erlandson J, Estes JA, Hughes TP, Kidwell S, Lange CB, Lenihan HS, Pandolfi JM, Peterson CH, Steneck RS, Tegner MJ, Warner RR (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293(5530):629–637
Link JS (2002) What does ecosystem-based fisheries management mean. Fisheries 27(4):18–21
Marchi GD, Chiozzi G, Semere D (2009) Wings over the Red Sea: the birds of the Eritrean islands. Società italiana di scienze naturali, Milano, 128 p
Marsh H, Harris ANM, Lawler IR (1997) The sustainability of the Indigenous dugong fishery in Torres Strait, Australia/Papua New Guinea. Conserv Biol 11(6):1375–1386
Massé J, Araia T (1997) An acoustic survey on board research vessel “Europe”. MOF-IFREMER-CFD, Massawa
McClanahan TR (1995) A coral reef ecosystem-fisheries model: impacts of fishing intensity and catch selection on reef structure and processes. Ecol Model 80(1):1–19
Morissette L (2007) Complex, cost and quality of ecosystem models and their impact on resilience: a comparative analysis, with emphasis on marine mammals and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, Zoology, Vancouver, 260 p
Mortimer JA, Donnelly M, Plotkin PT (2000) Sea turtles. In: Sheppard CRC (ed) Seas at the millennium: an environmental evaluation: 3. Global issues and processes. Pergamon, Amsterdam, pp 59–71
Notarbartolo di Sciara G (2002) Cetacean species occurring in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. In: Notarbartolo di Sciara G (ed) Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas: state of knowledge and conservation strategies. ACCOBAMS, Monaco, pp 6–26
Opitz S (1996) Trophic interactions in Caribbean coral reefs. ICLARM Tech Rep No. 43, Makati City, 341 p
Palomares MLD, Pauly D (1998) Predicting food consumption of fish populations as functions of mortality, food type, morphometrics, temperature and salinity. Mar Freshw Res 49:447–453
Palomares MLD, Pauly D (eds) (2012) SeaLifeBase. http://www.sealifebase.org/ version (02/2012)
Pauly D (1980) On the interrelationships between natural mortality, growth parameters, and mean environmental temperature in 175 fish stocks. ICES J Mar Sci 39(2):175
Pauly D (1986) A simple method for estimating food consumption of fish populations from growth data and food conversion experiments. Fish Bull 4(4):827–840
Pauly D (2006) Major trends in small-scale marine fisheries, with emphasis on developing countries, and some implications for the social sciences. MAST 4(2):7–22
Pauly D, Christensen V, Dalsgaard J, Froese R, Torres F Jr (1998) Fishing down marine food webs. Science (Washington) 279(5352):860–863
Pauly D, Christensen V, Walters C (2000) Ecopath, Ecosim, and Ecospace as tools for evaluating ecosystem impact of fisheries. ICES J Mar Sci 57(3):697–706
PERSGA/GEF (2003) Status of breeding seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. PERSGA technical series no. 8. Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), Jeddah
Pet-Soede C, van Densen WLT, Pet JS, Machiels MAM (2000) Impact of Indonesian coral reef fisheries on the fish community structure and the resultant catch composition. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, pp 81–100
Pikitch EK, Santora C, Babcock EA, Bakun A, Bonfil R, Conover DO, Dayton P, Doukakis P, Fluharty D, Heneman B, Houde ED, Link J, Livingston PA, Mangel M, McAllister MK, Pope J, Sainsbury KJ (2004) Ecosystem-based fishery management. Science 305(5682):346–347
Pilcher N, Alsuhaibany A (2000) Regional status of coral reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. In: Wilkinson C (ed) Status of coral reefs of the world: 2000. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Dampier, pp 35–64
Pitcher TJ, Kalikoski D, Short K, Varkey D, Pramod G (2009) An evaluation of progress in implementing ecosystem-based management of fisheries in 33 countries. Mar Policy 33(2):223–232
Plagányi ÉE (2007) Models for an ecosystem approach to fisheries FAO fisheries technical paper, no 477. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome
Plagányi ÉE, Butterworth DS (2004) A critical look at the potential of Ecopath with Ecosim to assist in practical fisheries management. Afr J Mar Sci 26(1):261–287
Polovina J (1984) Model of a coral reef ecosystem. I. The ECOPATH model and its application to French Frigate Shoals. Coral Reefs 3(1):1–11
Price ARG, Jobbins G, Shepherd ARD, Ormond RFG (1998) An integrated environmental assessment of the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. Environ Conserv 25(01):65–76
Roberts C, Ormond R (1987) Habitat complexity and coral reef fish diversity and abundance on Red Sea fringing reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series. Oldendorf 41(1):1–8
Russell R (1999) Comparative demography and life history tactics of seabirds: implications for conservation and marine monitoring. In: Musick J.A. (ed) Life in the slow lane: ecology and conservation of long-lived marine animals. American Fisheries Society symposium, Monterey, California, pp 51–76
Schmitz OJ, Lavigne DM (1984) Intrinsic rate of increase, body size, and specific metabolic rate in marine mammals. Oecologia 62(3):305–309
Sheppard C, Price A, Roberts C (1992) Marine ecology of the Arabian region: patterns and processes in extreme tropical environments. Academic, London
Sherman K, Alexander LM (1986) Variability and management of large marine ecosystems. Westview Press, Boulder, 325 p
Smith ADM, Fulton EJ, Hobday AJ, Smith DC, Shoulder P (2007) Scientific tools to support the practical implementation of ecosystem-based fisheries management. ICES J Mar Sci 64(4):633–639
Spaet JLY, Berumen ML (2015) Fish market surveys indicate unsustainable elasmobranch fisheries in the Saudi Arabian Red Sea. Fish Res 161:356–364
Spalding M, Ravilious C, Green E (2001) World atlas of coral reefs. University of California Press, Berkeley
Tesfamichael D (1994) Sea turtles of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. Ministry of Fisheries and University of Asmara, Massawa
Tesfamichael D (2001) Characterising the Eritrean artisanal fisheries using catch and effort data analysis. MSc thesis, Wageningen University, Fish Culture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen, 42 p
Tesfamichael D (2012) Assessment of the Red Sea ecosystem with emphasis on fisheries. PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, Resource Management and Environmental Studies, Vancouver, 241 p
Tesfamichael D, Pitcher TJ, Pauly D (2014) Assessing changes in fisheries using fishers’ knowledge to generate long time series of catch rates: a case study from the Red Sea. Ecol Soc 19(1):18
Trites AW, Heise K (1996) Marine mammals. In: Pauly D, Christensen V, Haggan N (eds) Mass-balance models of North-Eastern Pacific ecosystems. Fisheries Centre Research Reports, vol 4(1), Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, pp 21–30.
Trites AW, Pauly D (1998) Estimating mean body masses of marine mammals from maximum body lengths. Can J Zool 76(5):886–896
Tsehaye I (2007) Monitoring fisheries in data-limited situations: a case study of the artisanal reef fisheries of Eritrea. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, 182 p
Tsehaye I, Nagelkerke LAJ (2008) Exploring optimal fishing scenarios for the multispecies artisanal fisheries of Eritrea using a trophic model. Ecol Model 212(3–4):319–333
van Couwelaar M (1997) Zooplankton and micronekton biomass off Somalia and in the southern Red Sea during the SW monsoon of 1992 and the NE monsoon of 1993. Deep-Sea Res II Top Stud Oceanogr 44(6–7):1213–1234
Varkey D, Ainsworth CH, Pitcher TJ (2012) Modelling reef fish population responses to fisheries restrictions in marine protected areas in the coral triangle. J Mar Biol 2012:1–18
Veldhuis MJW, Kraay GW, Van Bleijswijk JDL, Baars MA (1997) Seasonal and spatial variability in phytoplankton biomass, productivity and growth in the northwestern Indian Ocean: the southwest and northeast monsoon, 1992–1993. Deep-Sea Res I Oceanogr Res Pap 44(3):425–449
Wahbeh MI (1988) Seasonal distribution and variation in the nutritional quality of different fractions of two seagrass species from Aqaba (Red Sea), Jordan. Aquat Bot 32(4):383–392
Walczak P, Gudmundsson J (1975) Yemen Arab Republic – summary of fish stock assessment work. FAO, Rome, 14 p
Walker DI (1987) Benthic algae. In: Edwards AJ, Head SM (eds) Red Sea. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 152–168
Walters C (2000) Impacts of dispersal, ecological interactions, and fishing effort dynamics on efficacy of marine protected areas: how large should protected areas be? Bull Mar Sci 66(3):745–757
Walters C, Christensen V (2007) Adding realism to foraging arena predictions of trophic flow rates in Ecosim ecosystem models: shared foraging arenas and bout feeding. Ecol Model 209(2–4):342–350
Walters CJ, Martell SJD (2004) Fisheries ecology and management. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Walters C, Christensen V, Pauly D (1997) Structuring dynamic models of exploited ecosystems from trophic mass-balance assessments. Rev Fish Biol Fish 7(2):139–172
Walters C, Pauly D, Christensen V (1999) Ecospace: prediction of mesoscale spatial patterns in trophic relationships of exploited ecosystems, with emphasis on the impacts of marine protected areas. Ecosystems 2(6):539–554
Weikert H (1987) Plankton and the pelagic environment. In: Edwards AJ, Head SM (eds) Red Sea. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 90–111
Wolanski E (ed) (2001) Oceanographic process of coral reefs: physical and biological links in the great barrier reef. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Worm B, Sandow M, Oschlies A, Lotze HK, Myers RA (2005) Global patterns of predator diversity in the open oceans. Science (Washington) 309(5739):1365–1369
Zekaria ZA (2003) Butterflyfishes of the southern Red Sea: ecology and population dynamics. PhD thesis, University of Groningen, Groningen, 120 p
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the personnel of the fisheries administrations of the Red Sea countries for allowing me to use their data. I would also like to thank Dr. Villy Christensen for his help with EwE software, Ms. Chira Piroddi and Dr. Divya Varkey for their insights during the building and running of the model, and Dr. Daniel Pauly and Dr. Iyob Tsehaye for reviewing the drafts of this chapter. This research was supported by the Sea Around Us , a scientific collaboration between the University of British Columbia and The Pew Charitable Trusts.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix B: Non-fish Taxa Groups Included in the Model
Cetaceans
This group includes the dolphins and whales of the Red Sea, whose list and distributions have been described in the literature (Schmitz and Lavigne 1984; Frazier et al. 1987; Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002). All the reported cetaceans are from the suborder Odontocetea (toothed whales) except Balaenoptera edeni (Eden’s whale) and Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale), which are from the suborder Mysticeti. The P/B values for cetaceans were calculated assuming r/2 (Schmitz and Lavigne 1984), where r is the average intrinsic rate of growth (0.088 year−1) for the Red Sea cetaceans species Stenella attenuata, S. longirostris, S. coeruleoalba and Tursiops truncatus data were available. The estimated P/B for the group equals 0.044 year−1. The r/2 method is commonly used to measure P/B of marine mammals (Guénette 2005; Ainsworth et al. 2007). The Q/B value was estimated based on the body weight of Red Sea cetaceans taken from Schmitz and Lavigne (1984) and Trites and Pauly (1998), from which the ration was determined using the relationship in Trites and Heise (1996). The average Q/B value, 5.91 year−1 was used in the model. Biomass data were not available and were estimated by the model.
Dugongs
Dugongs are herbivore marine mammals whose abundance in the Red Sea is estimated to be about 4,000 animals (Gladstone et al. 2003). With an average weight of 320 kg (Frazier et al. 1987), the biomass is calculated to be 0.00292 t · km-2. Similar to the cetaceans , P/B for dugong was calculated using the intrinsic growth rate which is estimated to be 5 % year−1 (Marsh et al. 1997), with P/B = 0.025 year−1. The Q/B ratio is taken to be 11 year−1 as calculated by Ainsworth et al. (2007), based on body weight.
Birds
The sea birds covering the whole Red Sea are described in Evans (1987) and recent reviews on the status of the Red Sea birds by country are available (PERSGA /GEF 2003; Marchi et al. 2009). However, they are very brief with some list of species sighted and habitat distribution with no estimate of abundance. The P/B value of 0.38 year−1 was used based on Russell (1999). Seabird biomass was not available, and was estimated by the model.
Turtles
Five species of sea turtles , hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), are reported for the Red Sea (Frazier et al. 1987; Tesfamichael 1994). The first two are the most abundant, with known records of nesting on the Red Sea beaches (Frazier and Salas 1984; Frazier et al. 1987; Gladstone et al. 2003). The P/B value for turtles was estimated using the relationship M = −lnS, where M is an estimate of P/B and S is the survival rate, which was 0.948 year−1 for green turtle (Mortimer et al. 2000) and 0.867 year−1 for loggerhead (Chaloupka and Limpus 2002). This gives an average P/B value of 0.1 year−1. P/B value for all turtles in the Caribbean reef was calculated to be 0.2 year−1 (Opitz 1996). Since the P/B estimate using survival rate was only for two species, i.e., it does not include all the five species in the Red Sea, an average of the P/B calculated from survival and the Caribbean value, 0.15 year−1, was used for the model. Q/B value of 3.5 year−1 was used based on ecosystem models of the Caribbean reef (Opitz 1996) and west coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Alias 2003). Sea turtle biomass was not available and was estimated by the model.
Invertebrates
The invertebrates most important for the Red Sea fisheries are shrimps. Hence, they was given a separate functional group. The most common species caught are Penaeus semisulcatus, P. monodon, Marsupenaeus japonicus, Melicertus latisulcatus, Metapenaeus monoceros and Fenneropenaeus indicus. P/B value of 5 year−1 and Q/B of 29 year−1 based on Buchary (1999) were used as a starting parameters to balance the model.
The coral reef structure in the Red Sea is important ecologically and is also the main fishing ground for the artisanal fisheries. Thus, the reef forming corals are categorized as a separate functional group. The high and relatively stable temperature of the Red Sea is favourable for the formation of coral reefs. They are home to more than 200 species of corals (Head 1987). The Red Sea coral reef coverage area is estimated to be around 16,030 km2 (Spalding et al. 2001). Coral reefs are more developed in the northern part starting from the tip of Sinai Peninsula going south parallel to the coast until the central part (Sheppard et al. 1992). The longest continuous fringing reef in the Red Sea extends from Gubal , at the mouth of the Gulf of Suez , to Halaib , at the Egyptian border with Sudan (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). In the south, more patchy reefs are observed as the turbid water of the shallow shelf does not allow the growth of extensive reefs. Sanganeb Atoll , located in Sudan near the border with Egypt , is the only atoll in the Red Sea. It is unique reef rising from 800 m depth to form an atoll that has been recognized as regionally important conservation area. It was proposed to UNESCO for World Heritage Status in the 1980s (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). The biomass of corals was calculated based on data from the southern Red Sea (Ateweberhan 2004; Tsehaye 2007) adjusted for the total area of the Red Sea and the north-south abundance gradient giving 2.75 t · km−2. The P/B value of corals was calculated based on daily turnover rate of 0.003 day−1 (Crossland et al. 1991), which equals to 1.095 year−1. A Q/B value of 9 year−1 was used based on the Caribbean reef model (Opitz 1996).
The other invertebrates included in the model are: non-coral sessile fauna such as sponges, sea anemones, and tunicates; cephalopods: squids, octopuses and cuttlefish; other molluscs; echinoderms: starfish , sea urchins and sea cucumber ; crustaceans: representing all crustaceans except shrimps (which have a group of their own); and meiobenthos: polychaetes and nematodes. The P/B and Q/B values of these groups were taken from an ecosystem model of the Eritrean coral reef (Tsehaye 2007) adjusted for the area of the Red Sea fine-tuned during balancing and time series fitting (Table 9.B1).
Primary Producers
There are three functional groups of primary producers in the model: phytoplankton , seagrasses and algae. The phytoplankton biomass of 21.5 t · km−2 and a P/B 110 year−1 were used based on data in (Weikert 1987; Veldhuis et al. 1997) averaged over all the Red Sea. For seagrass, a biomass of 11 t · km−2 and P/B value of 19 year−1 were used, based on Wahbeh (1988) and Aleem (1979). The biomass estimate of algae was based on Ateweberhan (2004) and Walker (1987), and was averaged for the whole Red Sea, resulting in 38 t · km−2. The P/B value of 14 year−1 was used based on Ateweberhan (2004) and Wolanski (2001), which is similar to the value in other coral reef ecosystems: Caribbean (Opitz 1996) and Indonesia (Ainsworth et al. 2007).
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Tesfamichael, D. (2016). An Exploration of Ecosystem-Based Approaches for the Management of Red Sea Fisheries. In: Tesfamichael, D., Pauly, D. (eds) The Red Sea Ecosystem and Fisheries. Coral Reefs of the World, vol 7. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7435-2_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7435-2_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-017-7433-8
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-7435-2
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)