Abstract
The period 1641–1652 was a very significant one in English history. There were in the first place a host of problems caused by internal strife, the wrestling of power from the hands of monarchy by the newly emerging middle class, and on the other hand the religious rivalries between Puritans and the High Church. As a third source of trouble there were many economic difficulties, especially the steady worsening of conditions among the poor 2). All these questions together drove many people to seek for a solution for the existing problems. There were two main groups among those interested; the first consisted of men who wished to change society, keeping however the existing framework of institutions and aiming only at certain improvements in the field of economics or education; the second group aimed at change in the basis of society which, according to their ideas, was unsatisfactory. To this group belonged men who took part in the Levellers or Diggers Movements, because they were discontented with the slow change of political conditions and the neglect by the Puritan middle class, just arisen to power, of the interests of the proletariat masses.
“Knowledg, why didst thou come, to wound, and not to cure?
I sent not for thee, thou didst me inlure.
Where knowledge does increase, there sorrows multiply,
To see the greath deceit which in the World doth lie.
Man saying one thing nou, unsaying it anon,
Breaking alVs Engagements, when deeds for him are done.
O power where art thou, that must mend things amiss?
Come change the heart of Man, and make him truth to kiss .... ”
Gerrard Winstanley — The Law of Freedom 1)
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References
Cf. p. 600, “The Works of Gerrard Winstanley”, edited by G. H. Sabine, Cornell University, 1941.
“The stage of economic and social development which had been reached in the England of 1640 was not the cause, but it was a necessary condition, of the political and religious movements that burst forth into sudden blaze”. G. M. Trevelyan, op. cit. p. 233.
“The Cromwellian revolution was not social and economic in its causes and motives; it was the result of political and religious thought and aspiration among men who had no desire to recast society or redistribute wealth”. G. M. Trevelyan, op. cit. p. 233.
Cf. H. J. Laski, op. cit. pp. 112–113: “It was the effort of men who suffered profoundly from the emergent social order, who fought on the side of Cromwell against tyranny in state or church. When they had enthroned Cromwell in power they found, to their indignation, that the new dispensation brought them no more benefit than the old. There was still one law for the rich and one for the poor .... They realized, as Peter Chamberlen put it, that the men who in 1641 departed from their King” to ease their purses and their consciences, would be equally willing to forsake their fellow subjects from the same Cause”.
Cf. also W. Schenk, op cit. p. 17: “These evils were aggravated by the fact that the Interregnum Governments did practically nothing to replace the Stuart machinery dealing with such matters as enclosures and poor relief; the ear of Parliament was “impenetrably closed to agrarian grievances”, and the general impression left by the Poor Law policy “is that of harshness coupled with failure”.
Cf. about Levellers: pp. 64–79; Gooch, op. cit. p. 204, also G. M. Trevelyan, op. cit. pp. 242–243.
Winstanley’s Works, op. cit. p. 6: “In 1649, when he launched his .... project, Winstanley evidently was making a precarious living by pasturing his neighbor’s cattle”. Winstanley says: “.... we have peace in our hearts, and quiet rejoycing in our work, and filled with sweet content, though we have but a dish of roots and bread for our food” ibid. p. 262.
Cf. W. Schenk, op. cit. pp. 97–98.
Winstanley’s Works, op. cit. p. 509; “And now I have set the candle at your door, for you (Cromwell) have power in your hand, in this other added opportunity, to Act for Common Freedom if you will ....”, ibid. p. 510.
Cf. Thomas More, “Utopia”, edited by H.Morley in his “Ideal Commonwealths”, London, 1889, p. 164.
For Winstanley’s ideas cf. further: “I speak now in relation between the Oppresser and the oppressed ; .... I am assured that .... the inward bondages of the minde, as covetousness, pride, hypocrisie, envy, fears, desperation, and madness, are all occasioned by the outward bondage, that one sort of people lay upon another. “Ibid. p. 520.
“Now if the Earth could be enjoyed in such a manner as every one might have provision .... men need not act so hypocritically .... to get a living: But when some shall enjoy great possessions, and others who have done as much or more .... shall have none at all, and be made slaves to their brethren, this begets offences”. Ibid. p. 524.
“.... this Government may well be called the Government of high-way men, who hath stolen the Earth from the younger brethren by force, and holds it from them by force ....” p. 529.
“And as he rise to the Throne by the crafty Art of buying and selling, and by the Sword, so he is maintained upon the Throne by the same means”. Ibid. p. 532.
“And do we not see, that all laws were made in the dayes of Kings to ease the rich ....” Ibid. p. 583.
“.... they get much Monies, and with this they buy Land, and become Landlords ; and if once Landlords, then they rise to be Justices, Rulers, and State Govern-ours, as experience shewes. “. Ibid. p. 258, “The True Levellers Standard”.
“But all rich men live at ease, feeding and clothing themselves by the labours of other men, not by their own .... and what they give, they give away other mens labours, not their own ....” Ibid. p. 511–512.
“....this restraining of the Earth from brethren by brethren, is oppression and bondage; but the free enjoyment thereof is true Freedom”. Ibid. p. 520.
“Government is a wise and free ordering of the Earth, and the Manners of Mankind by observation of particular Laws or Rules, so that all the Inhabitants may live peaceably in plenty and freedom ....” Ibid. p. 528.
“.... it is the work of a Parliament to break the Tyrants bonds, to abolish all their oppressing Laws, and to give Orders, Encouragements and Directions unto the poor .... to abolish all old Laws and Customs, which have been the strength of the Oppressor, and to prepare, and then to enact new Laws.....By the Peoples consent and knowledg likewise. And here they require the consent, not of men interested in the old (regime) .... but of those who have been oppressed”. Ibid. pp. 558–559.
Cf. Ibid. pp. 513, 517, 577, 583, 598.
Ibid. p. 519.
Ibid. pp. 519–520.
“There is no middle path between these two ....(systems)”. Ibid. p. 513.
“I do not ... .desire, That every one shall be compelled to practise this I Commonwealths Government ....” Ibid. p. 513.
Cf. op. cit. p. 550; Cf. further: pp. 516, 540–541, “One man may be an Overseer for twenty or thirty Families of Shoemakers, another for Smiths, another for Weavers of Cloth .... for the Keepers of Storehouses or Shops ....” p. 549. “And truly the Government of the Halls and Companies in London is a very rational and well ordered .... the Overseers of Trades may very well be called Masters, Wardens, and Assistants of such and such a Company, for such and such a particular Trade”. Op. cit. p. 549.
This is a very interesting statement which may be regarded as an example of Winstanley’s objectivity in this case and his appreciation of operational efficiency of the existing companies.
In this respect it is very interesting to compare some percentages of the acreages used for cultivation in Winstanley’s times in England and Wales and those recently obtained for the year 1946. These percentages have merely indicative value to show in broad outlines the changes which have taken place.
Winstanley’s times (figures after Gregory King’s Tables):
Total acreage used for cultivation in England and Wales about 54%.
Total acreage used for cultivation about 80% (in 1946).
In Winstanley’s times: about 80% of the total population was employed in agriculture. In Great Britain (1936): about 6% (this percentage includes also fisheries).
In Winstanley’s times: 24% of the total acreage was used as arable land, about 30% as meadow land and pasturage. In 1946 in England and Wales about 28,7% was used as arable land and 51,8% was used as pasturage (including rough grazings).
Of the whole area of England and Wales during Winstanley’s times there were: about 24% arable land, about 30% pasture and meadows, 15% woods, coppices, forests and parks, 26% barren land and about 5% under water, roads, houses, churches, gardens, etc. Cf. James E. Thorold Rogers, “A History of Agriculture and Prices in England”, Vol. V, Oxford, MDCCCLXXXVII, p. 92.
Cf. “The Land of Britain, its use and misuse” L. D. Stamp, London, 1950, Appendix VIII (Statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries).
Winstanley, op cit. p. 507. This statement has become true in our days, as we may assume that the total population of England and Wales during Winstanley’s times was about 5,5 million and it was in 1950 about 50 million (Great Britain) so that Winstanley’s prophecy was correct. It was not agriculture, however, which had given the means to maintain such population.
“.... There shall be no buying and selling in a Free Commonwealth, neither shall any one hire his brother to work for him” Ibid. p. 581.
The age of forty seems very young but one has to remember that it was very usual for chUdren of seven years to be employed, so that the age of forty might mean an exhaustion of a greater part of productive capacity. Also one has to reckon with the shorter average span of life due to bad hygienic conditions. Cf. Petty, “Political Arithmetick”, p. 308. Hull edit. Vol. I, Cambridge, 1890.
Winstanley, op. cit. p. 526. Cf. further “... every Trade shall be improved to more excellency then now it is: all children shall be educated” pp. 513, 515, 579.
“.... all Maides shaU be trained up in reading, sewing, kniting, spining of Lynnen and Woollen, Musique, and all other easie neat works ....” op. cit. p. 579.
“...when .... Freedom is established .... there will Knowledg cover the Earth, as the waters cover the sea, and not tiU then” ibid. p. 564.
He proposes also that some special honours are to be given to inventors and people of special skill Cf. pp. 578, 577, to “finde out the strength and power of the Earth (to) .... learn how to order these for the use and profit of Mankinde” op. cit. p. 578, as a matter of interest Winstanley mentions “ordering of cattel” how to breed the animals, among the people interested in it he includes: “Tanners, Hatters, Shoemakers, Glovers, Spinners of Wool, Clothiers etc ....” p. 578.
In order to understand Winstanley’s attitude about the use of money it is interesting to quote a sentence from one of his earlier pamphlets, “The Poor Oppressed People” op. cit. p. 270: “Money must not any longer .... be the great god ... for Money is but a part of the Earth; ... that they should neither be fed, nor be clothed (unless they would bring money)...”. And “... . aU this .... quarrelling among mankind, is abouth the earth who shall, and who shall not enjoy it, when indeed it is the portion of every one .... for better not to have had a body, then to be debarred the fruit of the Earth, to feed and cloth it; and if every one did but quietly enjoy the earth for food and raiment, there would be no wars, prisons, nor gallows ....” “A New Yers Gift” op. cit. p. 380.
“... if any through industry and ripeness of understanding have found out any secret in Nature, or new invention in any Art or Trade, or in the Tillage of the Earth, or such like whereby the Commonwealth may flourish in peace and plenty ...” Ibid. p. 571.
“And in the managing of any Trade, let no young wit be crushed in his invention, for if any man desire to make a new tryal of his skill in any Trade or Science, the Overseers shaU not hinder him but incourage him therein; that so the Spirit of knowledge may have his full growth in man, to finde out the secret in every Art”. Ibid. p. 580.
“. ... fear of want, and care to pay Rent to Task-masters, hath hindred many rare Inventions”. Ibid. p. 580.
About medical help says Winstanley the following: “If any persons be sick or wounded the Chyrurgeons .... shall go when they are sent for to any who need their help, but require no reward . . .. “ Ibid. p. 598.
“... there is Traditional Knowledg, which is attained by reading, or by the instruction of others, and not practical, but leads to an idle life, and this is not good”. Ibid. p. 579.
“.... he that onely contemplates and talks of what he reads and hears, and doth not employ his Talent .... for the encrease of fruitfulness, freedom, and peace in the Earth, is an unprofitable son”. Ibid. p. 577.
“And Every one who speaks of any Herb .... Art, or Nature of Mankind, is required to speak nothing by imagination, but what he hath found out by his own industry and observation in tryal”, ibid. p. 564.
“ … having food, and raiment, lodging, and comfortable societies of his own kinde; what can a man desire more in these days of his travel?” Ibid. p. 583.
Peter Cornelis Plockhoy, “A Way Propounded To Make the poor in these and other Nations happy .... Wherein every one may keep his propriety, and be im-ployed in some work or other, as he shaU be fit, without being oppressed”. Motto: Psalm 42 : 1. Blessed is he that considereth the poor, the Lord will deliver him in time of trouble .... London 1659. p. 10. “Having seen the great inequality and disorder among men in the World .... have I (together with others born for the common welfare) designed to endeavour to bring four sorts of people .... into one Family or Houshold-government, viz. Husbandmen, Handi-crafts people, Marriners and Masters of Arts and Sciences, to the end that we may the better eschue the yoke of Temporal and Spiritual/PAaraoAs/ who have long enough domineered over our bodies and souls, and set up again (as in former times) Righteousness, love an Brotherly Sociableness ....” op. cit. p. 3.
H. J. Me Lachlan, op. cit. p. 23, note 3; on the influence of Polish Socinians upon the Dutch Protestants cf. pp. 17–24.
“The radical social and humanitarian tendencies of the Polish Socinians are illustrated by their leaders’ renunciation of privileges, the freeing of peasants from serfdom (three hundred years before the final emancipation of the serfs in Europe), the selling of estates, and the giving of the proceeds for religious and charitable purposes”. Ibid. p. 17, note 1.
Quoted from an article by Leland Harder in “Mennonite Life”, January, 1949, pp. 42, (published by Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas), cf. also op. cit. pp. 41–48. Further cf. D. Grosheide, “Cromwell naar het oordeel van zijn Nederlandse tijdgenoten,” doctoral thesis Amsterdam, 1951, pp. 122–124.
H. P. G. Quack, “De Socialisten Personen en Stelsels”, Amsterdam, 1911, vol. I, pp. 156–167. Plockhoy’s work was plagiarized several years later by his ow-country man Abraham van Akkeren.
“Those that come into our Society shall not be bound to make their goods common ...” Plockhoy, op. cit. p. 4 ; “If any will ... bring in any thing to increase the Stock it shall be used for the common benefit, without being appropriated for any mans own in particular” op. cit. p. 5; All lands or goods brought in for the “Common Service” have security upon the same and will be used by the Company without paying interest, the children possess the same right after the death of benefactors. Ibid. p. 5.
Ibid. p. 13.
Cf. p. 4. Rich people might also live in the company’s houses, even non-members ; they would have to pay for food, clothing and lodging but would not need to take part in the work. “If any by sickness or otherwise became indisposed, the rest .... shall work for him. op. cit. p. 9, and: “.... there will be no need in our Society, to take care, or to make provision for the aged time, or day of sickness, nor for children ....” Ibid. p. 10. Medical assistance and education would be given free to all poor persons, those outside the companies included. The company was to stand ready to give the same service to rich people against payment, cf. op. cit. pp. 4–6.
Ibid. p. 5.
Ibid. pp. 5–6.
Ibid. p. 6.
“... this (the medical assistance) will give an increase to our Trading for the common-good, the fame thereof being noised round about, and the more when people are sensible that we sell all things at a reasonable rate without deceiving any”. Ibid. p. 6.
Ibid. pp. 8–9.
Cf. Edward Chamberlin, “The Theory of Monopolistic Competition”, Harvard University Press, 1947.
“... fitting every one to that which is fittest for him ...” Plockhoy, op. cit. p. 7 ; “In all Handy-crafts we shall appoint the best workmen for Masters ....” p. 8. “Whereas in 100 Families there will be need of 100 fires every day to be made; bringing so many Families together, we shall be able to make shift with four or five great fires and furnaces . ...” p. 7; Meat, Drink, and all other things will cost us the less, because we buy a great quantity at once ....” p. 7.
Op. cit. p. 8; “In this house every one shall be able quietly to do his work, because none shall have more than one single work to mind” p. 7 and “Covetousness, excess, lying and deceit, together with all the evils that spring up out of riches, or poverty, will be excluded from us, who maintain equality ....” p. 10.
“(in this world) .... they are accounted the greatest who have most servants and not they that do most service to others . . . . “ ibid. p. 3.
Cf. H. P. C. Quack, op. cit. pp. 167–173 and also E. Laspeyres, “Geschichte der Volkswirtschaftlichen Anschauungen der Niederländer”, Leipzig, 1863, pp. 105–106, edited by Prince Jablonowski Foundation.
Cf. John Stuart Mill “Principles of Political Economy”, Book IV, Chapter VII. §6.
Robert Wallace. “Various Prospects”, London, 1761, p. 3.
Cf. Dictionary of National Biography, vol. LIX, London, 1899.
It is possible that the first scientific treatment of Utopia was done by Georg Pasch in his dissertation, “Disputatio Philosophica De Fictis Rebuspublicis etc.” Kiloni, MDCCIV.
Wallace influenced Malthus via William Godwin’s work: “Enquiry concerning Political Justice” (1793). Cf. article by J. Rees in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences”, N. York, 1938. vol. XV.
R. Wallace, op. cit. p. 5.
Ibid. p. 5.
Ibid. pp. 8–9.
Ibid. p. 9.
Op. cit. p. 10, compare further: “Complete plans and proper schemes for acquiring knowledge have never been adjusted”.
Op. cit. pp. 17–18.
Op. cit. p. 23: “... . here one will be attacked by crowds from every quarter, who will put a thousand of questions, and offer a multitude of arguments against the possibility of such improvements”. See also pp. 36–37.
Op. cit. pp. 24–25; “There is still room for further trials of this kind. The subject will not be easily exhausted. Old plans may be corrected, and experience may make the world wiser” op. cit. p. 37.
Op. cit. p. 25.
“The bad correspondence in which mankind live, the struggles for riches and power ... the jealousies among the great, the ambition of kings and princes, their interfering interests, and the bloody wars, destroy millions, and prevent the earth’s being fully peopled. Poverty which discourages great numbers from marrying .... is a great hindrance to the increase of mankind” op. cit. pp. 25–26.
Wallace’s views about property cf. pp. 27–28, and: “As by removing property, we destroy theft and robbery, so by maintaining an equality, we prevent hardships, banish discord ....” p. 100–101.
Op. cit. pp. 26–27.
Ibid. p. 33.
Ibid. p. 26.
Ibid. pp. 38–46. See also “That there should be no private property. That every one should work for the public, and be supported by the public. That all should be on a level, and that the fruits of every one’s labour should be common for the comfortable subsistence of all the members of the society”. Op. cit. p. 46.
Op. cit. p. 45 and p. 44 “... the members of the society should neither be distinguished by their houses, cloaths, nor food, but aU of them should enjoy every thing in the same manner, unless where particular distinctions must necessarily arise from differences in the soil, climate, or other circumstances, which rendered a variety proper or unavoidable”.
Ibid. pp. 46–47.
Ibid. p. 114.
Ibid. p. 116.
Ibid. p. 122; cf. further pp. 114–125. Wallace considers wars, poverty and vice as the natural equilibrating forces which prevent an excessive growth of population.
Ibid. p. 49.
The governments are disturbed by “The great inequality among mankind, and the advantages enjoyed by a few, which they neither deserve, nor employ for good purposes. (Secondly by) The Want of a proper education . . .. “ op. cit. p. 98.
In the new society “Every one might have the means of being a philosopher if he pleased” op. cit. p. 105.
“Our vices .... are wholly derived from our abuse of liberty. Hence jealousies, suspicions, calumnies, malice .... tyranny, oppression .... It is from these odious vices alone, and not from any penury of provisions, that such multitudes of the human race enjoy so few of the comforts of life, and are exposed to hunger, cold, poverty, contempt, and excessive labour” op. cit. p. 300.
Op. cit. p. 124, cf. pp. 67–70”.
Wallace stresses very strongly the notion of labour cf. p. 52, “The great bulk of mankind have either been condemned to severe labour in order to procure the necessaries of life, and have not had time to cultivate their minds, or they have busied themselves, without necessity, in pursuing a fantastic elegance and magnificence .. . .” p. 52. “Even under our imperfect governments, ‘tis not so much the labour in itself which excites the idea of meanness, as the circumstances of the persons engaged in it.” p. 80. “Human nature .... cannot therefore arrive at any degree of perfection on this earth, but in proportion as human society can be rendered more perfect” p. 359.
Many economists of the 17th century were very anxious about the population problem and even regarded England of their time as overpopulated. Cf. Nicolas Barbon, “A Discourse of Trade”, 1690, edited by J. H. Hollander, in “A Reprint of Economic Tracts”, 1905 p. 29: “There is now no Room, the World is full of People”. Cf. also J. Bonar, “Theories of Population from Raleigh to Arthur Young”, London, 1931.
Cf. A. M. de Jong, “Inleiding tot het Bevolkingsvraagstuk”, ‘s-Gravenhage, 1946, p. 46, where he speaks about: “Prophetic Malthusianism”, to indicate later developments of the population theory, mentioning those scholars who accepted Malthusian propositions but think that there should be no immediate danger, although such a danger would exist in the long run. Wallace might be called such a “prophetic Malthusian” ante datum.
Cf. also Erich Roll; “A History of Economic Thought”, London, 1950, p. 199.
Wallace op. cit. p. 51.
Ibid. p. 72.
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Fuz, J.K. (1952). Collectivist Utopia. In: Welfare Economics in English Utopias. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-4681-6_4
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