Abstract
Zooplankton, using macrophytes as refuges from predation by zooplanktivorous fish, are believed to be important in maintaining the macrophyte-dominated state in shallow lakes. Their grazing upon phytoplankton is also believed to be instrumental in preserving water transparency in the establishment phase of macrophytes which follows an attempt to restore a shallow lake from the effects of eutrophication. This paper interprets the results of fish, zooplankton and macrophyte interactions from an intensive 3-year study in the Norfolk Broads of eastern England. In the presence of even a low density of 0+ fish (0.2 m−2), Daphnia spp. which typically dominate the cladoceran community in spring, and through grazing are responsible for producing clear water, are typically reduced to very low levels. This decline may become protracted, but not eliminated, by the presence of macrophytes, implying a refuge effect. The efficacy of any refuge effect appears to increase with an increasing proportion of the water column occupied by macrophytes (PVI). As macrophytes develop, the grazing role is taken over by Ceriodaphnia spp. and Simocephalus spp., and may be at a sufficient rate to maintain clear water at least within macrophyte stands and possibly in intervening open water areas through diel migration of the zooplankton. A macrophyte PVI of 30–40% may provide an adequate refuge for these species through the mechanism of predation-free space, although this depends on fish density and community structure. At high densities (1 m−2) of a suite of fish species, including efficient foragers in open water (roach, Rutilus rutilus) and within macrophytes (perch, Perca fluviatilis), any refuge effect is nullified. In stable macrophyte-dominated lakes, the shift in fish community structure towards a higher proportion of piscivorous compared to zooplanktivorous fish may have a role in promoting the refuge effect through changing the distribution of zooplanktivorous fish. Predation upon zooplankton may also be reduced through the provision of alternative prey in the form of macrophyte-associated macroinvertebrates for an alternative fish stock dominated by perch, rudd (Scardinins erythrophthalmus) and tench (Tinca tinca).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Bean, C. W. & I.J. Winfield, 1995. Habitat use and activity patterns of roach (Rutilas radius (L.)), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus (L.)), perch (Perm fluviatilis L.) and pike (Esox Lucius L.) in the laboratory: the role of predation threat and structural complexity. Ecol. Freshwat. Fish 4: 37–46.
Broads Authority, 1994. The Broads Plan - No Easy Answers. Broads Authority Consultation Document, Broads Authority, Norwich, U.K.
Canfield, D. E. Jr., J. V. Shireman, D. E. Colle, W. T. Haller, C. E. Watkins & M. J. Maceina, 1984. Prediction of chlorophyll a concentrations in Florida lakes: importance of aquatic macrophytes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries amp Aquatic Sciences 41: 497–501.
Carpenter, S. R., J. F. Kitchell, J. R. Hodgson, P. A. Cochran, J. J. Elser, M. M. Elser, D. M. Lodge, D. Kretchmer, X. He, & C. N. von Ende, 1987. Regulation of lake primly productivity by food web structure. Ecology 68: 1863–1876.
Carpenter, S. R. & D. M. Lodge, 1986. Effects of submersed macrophytes on ecosystem processes. Aquat. Bot. 26: 341–370.
Copp, G. H. & M. Pendz, 1988. Ecology of fish spawning and nursery zones in the flood plain, using a new sampling approach. Hydrobiologia 169: 209–224.
Cryer, M. & C. R. Townsend, 1988. Spatial distribution of zooplankton in a shallow eulrophic lake, with a discussion of its relation to fish predation. J. Plankt. Res. 10: 487–501.
Cryer, M., G. Peirson & C. R. Townsend, 1986. Reciprocal interactions between roach, Rutilus rutilus, and zooplankton in a small lake: Prey dynamics and fish growth and recruitment. Limnol. Oceanog. 31: 1022–1038.
Davies, J., 1985. Evidence for a diurnal horizontal migration in Daphnia hyalina lacustris Sars. Hydrobiologia 120: 103–105.
de Meester L., S. Maas, K. Dierckens amp H. J. Dumont, 1993. Habitat selection of patchiness in Scapholeberis: horizontal distribution and migration of S. mucronata in a small pond. J. Plankt. Res. 15: 1129–1139.
de Nie, A. W., 1987. The Decrease in Aquatic Vegetation in Europe and its Consequences for Fish Populations. EIFAC Occasional Paper 19. FAO, Rome: 88 pp.
Dorgelo, J. & M. Heykoop, 1985. Avoidance of macrophytes by Daphnia longispina. Verha. Int. Ver. Limnol. 22: 3369–3372.
Eklov, P., 1992. Group foraging versus solitary foraging efficiency in piscivorous predators: the perch Perca fluviatilis, and pike Esox lucius, patterns. Anim. Behay. 44: 313–326.
Engel, S., 1988. The role and interactions of submerged macrophytes in a shallow Wisconsin lake. J. Freshwat. Ecol. 4: 229–241.
Finlayson, C. M. (ed.), 1992. Integrated Management and Conservation of Wetlands in Agricultural and Forested Landscapes. Proceedings of the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Reserarch Bureau workshop, Trebon, Czechoslovakia, 25–31 March 1992. IWRB Special Publication 22: 104 pp.
Furnass, T. 1., 1979. Laboratory experiments on prey selection by perch fry (Perca fluviatilis). Freshwat. Biol. 9: 33–43.
Gamier, J. & S. Mourelatos, 1991. Contribution of grazing in phytoplankton overall losses in a shallow French lake. Freshwat. Biol. 25: 515–523.
Gliwicz, Z. M., 1990. Why do cladocerans fail to control algal blooms? Hydrobiologia 200/201 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 61 ): 83–97.
Hall, D. J. & E. E. Werner, 1977. Seasonal distribution and abundance of fishes in the littoral zone of a Michigan lake. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 106: 545–555.
Irvine, K., B. Moss, & H. Balls, 1989. The loss of submerged plants with eutrophication II. Relationships between fish and zooplank
ton in a set of experimental ponds, and conclusions. Freshwat. Biol. 22: 89–107.
Jacobsen, L., M. R. Perrow, F. Landkildehus, M. Hjprne, T. L. Lauridsen, & S. Berg, 1997. Interactions between piscivores, zooplanktivores and zooplankton in submerged macrophytes: preliminary observations from enclosure and pond experiments. Hydrobiologia 342/343 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 119 ): 197–205.
Jcppesen, E., J. P. Jensen, P. Kristensen, M. SOndergaard, E. Mortensen, O. Sortkja r & K. Olrik, 1990. Fish manipulation as a lake restoration tool in shallow, eutrophie, temperate lakes 2: threshold levels, long-term stability and conclusions. Hydrobiologia 200/201 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 61 ): 219–227.
Jeppesen, E.. T. L. Lauridsen, T. Kairesalo amp M. R. Perrow, 1998. Impact of submerged macrophytes on fish-zooplankton interactions in lakes. In Jeppesen, E.. SOndergaard, Mo., Spndergaard, Ma. & Christoffersen, K. (eds), The Structuring Role of Submerged Macrophytes in Lakes. Ecological Studies Series, Springer-Verlag, New York: 171–189.
Krull, J. H., 1970. Aquatic plant-macroinvertebrate associations and waterfowl. J. Wildlife Manage. 34: 707–718.
Lammens, E. H., Boesewinkel, P. J. de Bruyn, H. Hoogveld & E. Van Donk, 1992. P-load, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish stock in Loosdrecht Lake and Tjeukemecr: confounding effect of predation and food availability. Hydrobiologia 233: 87–95.
Lauridsen, T. L. & 1. Buenk, 1996. Dicl changes in the horizontal distribution of zooplankton in the littoral zone of two shallow lowland lakes Arch. Hydrobiol. 137: 161–176.
Lauridsen, T. L. & D. M. Lodge, 1996. Avoidance by Daphnia magna of fish and macrophytes: chemical cues and predator-mediated use of macrophyte habitat. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22: 805–810.
Lauridsen, T. L., E. Jeppesen, amp M. SOndergaard, 1994. Colonization and succession of submerged macrophytes in shallow Lake Vtcng during the first five years following fish manipulation. Hydrobiologia 275/276 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 94 ): 233–242.
Lauridsen, T. L., L. J. Pedersen, E. Jeppesen & M. SOndergaard, 1996. The importance of macrophyte bed size for composition and horizontal migration of cladocerans in a shallow lake. J. Plankt. Res. 18: 2283–2294.
Lehtovaara, A. & J. Sarvala, 1984. Seasonal dynamics of total biomass and species composition of zooplankton in the littoral of an oligotrophic lake. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 22: 885–891.
Moss, B. 1983. The Norfolk Broadland: experiments in the restoration of a complex wetland. Biol. Rev. 58: 521–561.
Mourelatos, S. & G. Lacroix, 1990. In situ filtering rates of Cladocera: effect of body length, temperature, and food concentration. Limnol. Oceanogr. 35: 1101–1111.
Meijer, M.-L., E. Jeppesen, E. van Donk, B. Moss, M. Scheffer, E. H. Lammens, E. van Nes, J. A. van Berkum, G. L. de Jong, B. A, Faafeng. & J. P. Jensen, 1994. Long-term responses to fish-stock reduction in small shallow lakes: interpretation of five-year results of four biomanipulation cases in The Netherlands and Denmark. Hydrobiologia 275/276 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 94 ): 457–466.
National Research Council, 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems - Science, Technology and Public Policy. National Academy Press, Washington D.C, U.S.A.: 552 pp.
Ozimek, T., R. D. Gulati amp E. van Donk, 1990. Can macrophytes be useful in biomanipulation of lakes? The Lake Zwemlust example. Hydrobiologia 200/201 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 61 ): 399–407.
Pennak, R. W., 1973. Some evidence for aquatic macrophytes as repellents for a limnetic species of Daphnia. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 58: 569–576.
Perrow, M. R., 1990. Biomanipulation in Broadland. In K. T. O’Grady, Butterworth, A. J. B., Spillett, P. B. & Domaniewski, J. C. J. (eds), Fisheries in the Year 2000. Proceedings of the 21st anniversary conference of the Institute of Fisheries Management: 335–337.
Perrow, M. R., B. Moss, & J. H. Stansfield, 1994. Trophic interactions in a shallow lake following a reduction in nutrient loading: a long term study. Hydrobiologia 275/276 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 94 ): 43–52.
Perrow, M. R., A. J. D. Jowitt, & L. Zambrano Gonzalez, 1996a. Sampling fish communities in shallow lowland lakes: point-sample electrofishing versus electrofishing within stop-nets. Fisheries Manage. Ecol. 3: 303–313.
Perrow, M. R., A. J. D. Jowitt, & S. R. Johnson, 1996b. Factors affecting the habitat selection of tench (Tinca tinca (L.)) in a shallow eutrophic lake. J. Fish Biol. 48: 859–870.
Perrow, M. R., M.-L. Meijer, P. Dawidowicz & H. Coops, 1997. Biomanipulation in shallow lakes: state of the art. Hydrobiologia 342/343 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 119 ): 355–65.
Perrow, M. R. & A. J. D. Jowitt, in press. The influence of macrophytes on the structure and function of fish communities. Broads Authority/Environment Agency, EC LIFE project 92–3/UK/03I.
Perrow, M. R.. J. H. Stansfield, A. J. D. Jowitt & L. D. Tench, in press. Macrophytes as a refuge for grazing zooplankton from fish predation. Broads Authority/Environment Agency, EC LIFE project 92–3/UK/031.
Persson, L., 1986. Effects of reduced interspecific competition on resource utilization in perch (Percaluviatilis). Ecology 67: 355–364.
Persson, L. 1993. Predator-mediated competition in prey refuges: the importance of habitat dependent prey resources. Oikos 68: 12–22.
Persson, L. & P. Eklov, 1995. Prey refuges affecting interactions between piscivorous perch and juvenile perch and roach. Ecology 76: 70–81.
Phillips, G. L., M. R. Perrow & J. H. Stansfield, 1996. Manipulating the fish-zooplankton interaction in shallow lakes: a tool for restoration. In S. P. R. Grcenstreet & Tasker, M. L. (eds). Aquatic Predators and their Prey. Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., Oxford, England: 174–183.
Phillips, G., A. Bramwell, J. Pitt, J. Stansfield & M. Perrow, 1999. Practical application of 25 years’ research into the management of shallow lakes. Hydrobiologia 395/396 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 136 ): 61–76.
Sas, H., 1989. Lake restoration by reduction of nutrient loading: expectations, experiences, extrapolations. Academia Verlag: 497 pp.
Savino, J. & R. A. Stein, 1982. Predator-prey interaction between largemouth bass and bluegills as influenced by simulated, submersed vegetation. Trans. am. Fish. Soc. 111: 255–266.
Scheffer, M., S. H. Hosper, M.-L. Meijer, B. Moss & E. Jeppesen, 1993. Alternative equilibria in shallow lakes. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8: 275–279.
Schriver, P., J. BOgestrand, E. Jeppesen, & M. SOndergaard, 1995. Impact of submerged macrophytes on fish-zooplanktonphytoplankton interactions: large-scale enclosure experiments in a shallow lake. Freshwat. Biol. 33: 255–270.
Shapiro, J., 1990. Biomanipulation: the next phase-making it stable. Hydrobiologia 200/201 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 61 ): 13–27.
Stansfield, J. H., M. R. Perrow, L. D. Tench, A. J. Jowitt, & A. A. Taylor, 1997. Submerged macrophytes as refuges for grazing Cladocera against fish predation: observations on seasonal changes in relation to macrophyte cover and predation pressure. Hydrobiologia 342/343 ( Dev. Hydrobiol. 119 ): 229–240.
Thompson, J. M., A. J. Ferguson, & C. S. Reynolds, 1982. Natural filtration rates of zooplankton in a closed system: the derivation of a community grazing index. J. Plankt. Res. 4: 545–560.
Timms, R. M. & B. Moss, 1984. Prevention of growth of potentially dense phytoplankton populations by zooplankton grazing, in the presence of zooplanktivorous fish, in a shallow wetland system. Limnol. Oceanogr. 29: 472–486.
Townsend, C. R. & M. R. Perrow, 1989. Eutrophication may produce population cycles in roach, Rutilus rutilus, by two contrasting mechanisms. J. Fish Biol. 34: 161–164.
Townsend, C. R. & A. J. Risebrow, 1982. The influence of light level on the functional response of a zooplanktivorous fish. Oecologia 53: 293–295.
Turner, A. M. & G. G. Mittelbach, 1992. Effects of grazer community composition and fish on algal dynamics. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 49: 1908–1915.
van Donk, E. & R. D. Gulati, 1995. Transition of a lake to turbid state six years after biomanipulation: mechanisms and pathways. Wat. Sci. Technol. 32: 197–206.
van Donk, E., R. D. Gulati, A. ledema, & J. T. Meulemans, 1993. Macrophyte-related shifts in the nitrogen and phosphorus contents of the different trophic levels in a hiomanipulated shallow lake. Hydrobiologia 251: 19–26.
Vanni, M. J., 1986. Competition in zooplankton communities: suppression of small species by Daphnia pulex. Limnol. Oceanogr. 31: 1039–1056.
Venugopal, M. N. & I. J. Winfield, 1993. The distribution of juvenile fishes in a hypereutrophic pond: Can macrophytes potentially offer a refuge for zooplankton? J. Freshwat. Ecol. 8: 389–396.
Walls, M., M. Rajasilta, J. Sarvala, & J. Salo, 1990. Diel changes in horizontal microdistribution of littoral Cladocera. Limnologica 20: 253–258.
Werner, E. E., J. F. Gilliam, D. J. Hall, & G. G. Mittelbach, 1983. An experimental test of the effects of predation risk on habitat use in fish. Ecology 64: 1540–1548.
Winfield, I. J., 1986. The influence of simulated aquatic macrophytes on the zooplankton consumption rate of juvenile roach, Rutilus rutilus, rudd, Scardinius erythrophthalmus, and perch, Perca fiuviatilis. J. Fish Biol. 29: 37–48.
Wium-Anderson, S., U. Anthoni, C. Christophcrsen, & G. Houen, 1982. Allelopathic effects on phytoplankton by substances isolated from aquatic macrophytes ( Charales ). Oikos 39: 187–190.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this paper
Cite this paper
Perrow, M.R., Jowitt, A.J.D., Stansfield, J.H., Phillips, G.L. (1999). The practical importance of the interactions between fish, zooplankton and macrophytes in shallow lake restoration. In: Harper, D.M., Brierley, B., Ferguson, A.J.D., Phillips, G. (eds) The Ecological Bases for Lake and Reservoir Management. Developments in Hydrobiology, vol 136. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3282-6_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3282-6_19
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-5251-3
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-3282-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive