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Radical Nature in the Encyclopédie

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Science, History and Social Activism

Part of the book series: Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science ((BSPS,volume 228))

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Abstract

This paper offers an analysis of the role radical biological ideas played in the French Encyclopédie in the mid-eighteenth century. Based on new observations and experiments on the microscopic world, these biological ideas supported a radical view of active matter and threatened to destroy the traditional view of an unchanging, hierarchical social order. This radical thread is traced through several articles from the Encyclopédie, and is shown to have played a key role in the furor that erupted in the early 1750s after the first volumes were published and then, more decisively, when the whole enterprise was shut down as being too subversive.

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Notes

  1. Denis Diderot, “Naturaliste”,inEncyclopédie,ou dictionnaire raisonnédes sciences,des arts et des métiers,par une société de gens de lettres,17 vols.Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, eds.(Paris:Briasson, David, Le Breton, Durand [vols.1–7];Neufchâtel:S.Faulche [vols.8–17], 1751–1765),vol. 11, p.39B.For the attribution of this and other articles to Diderot and on the whole complex question of the authorship of unsigned articles,see Denis Diderot,Oeuvres complètes,Herbert Dieckmann, Jean Fabre,and Jacques Proust,ed.(Paris:Hermann, 1975—),vol.5, pp.1–12.

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  2. Ephraim Chambers,Cyclopaedia or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, 2 vols.(London: James and John Knapton, 1728).The original intent had been to publish a French translation of Chambers’work.This idea was abandoned by the time Diderot wrote the prospectus for the new project in 1750, although one finds portions of articles from the Chambers encyclopedia in a number ofEncyclopédiearticles. See John Lough,The Encyclopédie ( New York: David McKay, 1971 ), pp. 2–3.

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  3. The Correspondence Between Albrecht von Haller and Charles Bonnet,Otto Sonntag,ed.(Bern:Hans Huber,1983),p. 498;letter of 27 May 1766.

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  10. In 1749 d’Hémery described Diderot as “very dangerous; speaks of holy mysteries with scorn”. See Robert Darnton, “A Police Inspector Sorts His Files”, in The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York: Basic Books, 1984), p. 187. See also Dale Van Kley, The Religious Origins of the French Revolution: From Calvin to the Civil Constitution, 1560–1791 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 248.

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  11. Lough’s Encyclopédie is an exception, in that he follows out the cross-referencing from the article “Ethiopiens” (discussed later in this paper).

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  12. Jacques Roger, Les Sciences de la vie dans la pensée française du XVIII siècle: la génération des animaux de Descartes à l’Encyclopédie (Paris: Armand Colin, 1963). See, for example, Emile Callot, La Philosophie de la vie au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: M. Rivière, 1965) and Colm Kiernan, The Enlightenment and Science in Eighteenth-Century France, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 59A ( Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1973 ).

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  13. Lough,Encyclopédie (cit. n. 2),Chs.1–2,pp.1–38.

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  14. Van Kley,Religious Origins (cit. n. 10); Van Kley, The Damiens Affair and the Unraveling of the Ancien Régime, 1750–1770 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); O’Keefe, Contemporary Reactions to the Enlightenment (cit. n. 6); John Rossiter, Louis XVand the Parlementof Paris,17371755 (Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press, 1995 ).

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  15. See Van Kley, Religious Origins (cit. n. 10), pp. 182–184, 188–189; Van Kley, Damiens Affair, pp. 226–265; Arlette Farge,Subversive Words: Public Opinion in Eighteenth-Century France(University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994 ),pp.164–175.

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  16. Roger,Les Sciences de la vie (cit. n. 12); Shirley A. Roe,Matter, Life, and Generation: Eighteenth-Century Embryology and the Haller-Wolff Debate(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981 ).

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  17. This was published in an expanded edition the next year as Vénus physique. See Mary Terrall, “Salon,Academy, and Boudoir:Generation and Desire in Maupertuis’ Science of Life”,Isis,87(1996),pp.217–229; David Beeson, Maupertuis.:An Intellectual Biography,Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century,299(Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation,1992),pp171–182, 206–215.

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  18. [Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis], Vénus physique (n.p.,1745).Quotation from The Earthly Venus, trans. Simone Brangier Boas, with notes and an introduction by George Boas ( New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1966 ),p.42.

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  19. For Buffon’s conversations with Maupertuis,see John Turberville Needham, “A Summary of Some Late Observations upon the Generation, Composition,and Decomposition of Animal and Vegetable Substances”,Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,45 (1748), p.633.Buffon’s account formed the first five chapters of his Histoire naturelle,générale et particulière,31 vols. (Paris: L’Imprimerie Royale, 1749–1789); see vol. 2, p. 168. On Needham and Buffon, see Shirley A. Roe, “Buffon and Needham: Diverging Views on Life and Matter”, in Buffon 88:Actes du colloque international,Jean Gayon, ed.(Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1992), pp.439–450,and Roe,“John Turberville Needham and the Generation of Living Organisms”,Isis,74(1983), pp. 159–184.

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  20. Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis,Système de la nature,inOeuvres (Lyon: Bruyset, 1756),vol.2, p. 147.

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  21. This was also the problem that preformationists called attention to at every opportunity.See especially Albrecht von Haller, Réflexions sur le système de la génération,de M. de Buffon(Geneva:Barrillot,1751),and Charles Bonnet,Considérations sur les corps organisés(Amsterdam:Marc-Michel Rey,1762).See also Roe,Matter,Life,and Generation(cit. n. 16),andScience Against the Unbelievers:The Correspondence of Bonnet and Needham,1760–1780,Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century,243,Renato G.Mazzolini and Shirley A.Roe,eds.Oxford:The Voltaire Foundation, 1986 ),pp.7–52.

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  22. Although these notes no longer exist, they probably formed the basis for Diderot’sEncyclopédie article “Animal”. See Roger, Les Sciences de la vie (cit. n. 12), p. 599; see also Roger,Buffon: A Life in Natural History,Sarah Lucille Bonnefoi (trans.)(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), p. 199; Denis Diderot, Correspondance,Georges Roth and Jean Verloot, ed. (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1955–1970),vol. 1, p. 96; Diderot,Oeuvres complètes (cit. n. 1), vol. 5, p. 382 n. 2.

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  23. On Diderot’s developing materialism, see also Wilda Anderson, Diderot’s Dream (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), pp. 11–76. Roger, in Les Sciences de la vie (cit. n. 12) (p. 601), did not see as much of a development in Diderot’s thinking between 1748 and 1753 as I do. See also Jacques Roger, “Diderot et Buffon en 1749”, Diderot Studies,4 (1963), pp.221–236.

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  24. Roger,Buffon (cit. n. 22), pp.199–200,214.

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  25. Encyclopédie,vol.2,p.i.

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  26. Natural history articles that consist solely or mainly of quotations from Buffon’sHistoire naturelleinclude, in addition to “Animal”, “Espèce”, “Humaine espèce”,and “Homme(Hist. Nat.)”. Searching the on-line version of the Encyclopédiefor “Buffon”(<www.lib.uchicago.edu/ efts/ARTFL/projects/encyc>) http://www.lib.uchicago.edu /efts/ARTFL/projects/encyc yields 233 times his name appears. Several of these mentions occur in geological or forestry articles. See also James Liana, “Natural History and the Encyclopédie”,Journal of the History of Biology,33 (2000), pp. 1–25.

  27. Encyclopédie,vol.1, p.469B.

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  28. This implication was not lost on one of the Encyclopédie’s most assiduous critics, Abraham Joseph de Chaumeix,who in his eight-volumePréjugéslégitimes contre l’Encyclopédie,et Essai de réfutation de ce dictionnaire(Brussels, Paris: Herissant 1758–59), made this same comment (vol. 1, ip. 214).

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  29. Encyclopédie,vol. 1. p.471B.

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  30. Encyclopédie,p. 474A. Buffon, Histoire naturelle,vol.2, p. 17. Chaumeix took off from this comment to devote a whole section to “The faculty of thought is, according to the encyclopedists, a property of matter”,Préjugés légitimes (cit. n. 28),vol. 1, p. 224.

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  31. On Daubenton’s participation, see Buffon, Histoire naturelle, vol. 2, p. 171. On Daubenton, see Frank A. Kafker and Serena L. Kafker, The Encyclopedists as Individuals: A Biographical Dictionary of the Authors of the Encyclopédie, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 257 ( Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1988 ), pp. 88–91.

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  32. On Tarin, see Kafker and Kafker,Encyclopedists(cit. n. 31),pp. 360–362.

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  33. For a discussion of the epistemological radicalism that ran through some of the articles on natural history see Liana, “Natural History”(cit. n. 26).

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  34. In his introduction in Diderot’s Oeuvres complètes (cit. n. 1), Jean Varloot described the Pensées sur l’interprétation de la nature as a second Discours préliminaire to the Encyclopédie (the first one having been written by d’Alembert); see vol. 9, p. 5. In a similar vein, P.N. Furbank, in Diderot: A Critical Biography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), remarked that Diderot’s Pensées sur l’interprétation de la nature was “meant as some sort of theoretical complement to the Encyclopédie” (p. 109).

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  35. Diderot,Oeuvres complètes (cit. n. 1),vol,9,LVIII, pp. 95–98.

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  36. Lough,Encyclopédie (cit. n. 2), p. 109.

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  37. John N. Pappas, Berthier’s Journal de Trévoux and the Philosophes, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 3 (Geneva: Institut et Musée Voltaire, 1957), pp. 181–182, 184–185. See also O’Keefe, Contemporary Reactions to the Enlightenment (cit. n. 6), pp. 88–89, 94–95; Lough, Encyclopédie (cit. n. 2), pp. 107–108; Arthur M. Wilson, Diderot ( New York: Oxford University Press, 1972 ), pp. 152–154.

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  38. Wilson,Diderot(cit. n. 37),pp.154–158; see also Furbank,Diderot(cit. n. 34), pp. 89–96.

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  39. Arrêt du Conseil d’État du Roi… du 7 févier 1752,in Diderot,Oeuvres complètes (cit. n. 1), vol. 5

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  40. Van Kley,Religious Origins(cit. n. 10), p. 191.

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  41. See also Lough, Encyclopédie cit. n. 2, 113–115, Wilson, Diderot (cit. n. 37,) pp. pp. 154–158;Furbank, Diderot (cit. n. 34), pp. 90–96.

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  42. Pappas,Berthiers Journal de Trévoux (cit. n. 37), pp. 185–186.

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  43. See Wilson,Diderot (cit. n. 37), pp. 158–159; Edmond-Jean-François Barbier, Journal historique et anecdotique du règne de Louis XV,4 vols. (Paris, 1847–1856), vol. 3, pp. 344; René-Louis de Paulmy, Marquis d’Argenson, Journal et mémoires,9 vols. (Paris, 1859–1867), vol. 7, pp. 56, 71–72.

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  44. Furbank,Diderot (cit. n. 34), p. 89.

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  45. Wilson,Diderot (cit. n. 37), p. 159.

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  46. Furbank,Diderot (cit. n. 34), p. 92.

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  47. Kafker and Kafker, Encyclopedists as Individuals (cit. n. 31), pp. 16–18.

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  48. Roger,Les Sciences de la vie (cit. n. 12), p.631n.

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  49. Encyclopédie,vol.7, p.559B.

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  50. D’Aumont’slanguage is nearly identical to a similar passage written by Buffon. See Encyclopé-die, vol. 7, pp. 560A, 573B; Buffon, Histoire naturelle, vol. 2, p. 3.

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  51. Encyclopédie,vol. 7, p. 567B.

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  52. Encyclopédie,vol. 5, p. 642B.

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  53. See Van Kley, Religious Origins (cit. n. 10), p. 3.

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  54. Encyclopédie,vol. 16, p. 55A.

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  55. Kafker has raised the question whether revisions were made in Formey’s articles before they were printed. He has also pointed out that Formey never made such a claim. See Kafker and Kafker, Encyclopedists as Individuals (cit. n. 31), pp. 141.

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  56. Encyclopédie,vol. 4, p. 823B.

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  57. This section is almost a verbatim reprinting of Fontenelle’s “De l’existence de Dieu”, which according to Roger dates from 1724. See Roger, Les Sciences de la vie (cit. n. 12), p. 365 n. 224.

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  58. Fontenelle probably had in mind Francesco Redi’s and Jan Swammerdam’s observations in the 1680s disproving spontaneous generation of flies from rotting meat and from plant galls.

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  59. This latter work was actually Needham’s,but it was reported in Buffon’sHistoire naturelle as well as directly by Needham. See Roe, “Buffon and Needham” (cit. n. 19); Roe, “John Turberville Needham. (cit. n. 19)”.

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  60. Encyclopédie,vol. 4, p. 278B.

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  63. The one notable exception was the Réflexions d’un Franciscain sur les trois premiers volumes de l’Encyclopédie (Berlin, 1754); see Lough, Encyclopédie (cit. n. 2), pp. 115–116.

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  64. The other books condemned were [Louis de Beausorbre], Le Pirrhonisme du sage (Berlin, 1754); [Jean Baptiste d’Argens], La Philosophie du bon sens (La Haye, 1755); [Voltaire], La Religion naturelle. Poème… par M.V. (Geneva, 1756); P.B. Pascal), Lettres semi-philosopiques du chevalier de “au comte de” (Amsterdam & Paris, 1757); [Diderot], Etrennes aux esprits forts (London, 1757) (an edition of his Pensées philosophiques); and [abbé G.F. Coyer], Lettre au R. P. Berthier, sur le matérialisme (Geneva, 1759). Joly de Fleury had apparently originally intended to include Diderot’s Lettre sur les aveugles (1749), Lettre sur les sourds et les muets (1751),and Pensées sur l’interprétation de la nature (1753–1754), along with Condillac’s Traité des sensations (1754), Rousseau’s Discours sur l’inégalité, J.F. de Bastide’s Les Choses comme on doit les voir (1757), and Voltaire’s La Pucelle d’Orléans (1755), but he apparently changed his mind, as these titles are crossed out in the first draft of his indictment. See Bibliothèque Nationale, Collection Joly de Fleury, vol. 352, dossier 3807; and D.W. Smith, Helvétius: A Study in Persecution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp. 40–41.

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  65. Arrests de la Cour de Parlement, portant condamnation de plusieurs Livres & autres Ouvrages imprimés. Extrait des Registres de Parlement. Du 23 Janvier 1759,pp. 1–2.

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  66. Arrêts,p. 2.

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  68. See Van Kley,Religious Origins (cit. n. 10), pp. 172–175, 179–183; Van Kley, Damiens Affair (cit. n. 14), pp. 246–265.

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  69. Van Kley,Religious Origins (cit. n. 10), pp. 180–190. See also Farge, Subversive Words (cit. n. 15), pp. 161–175.

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  70. Quoted in Lough,Encyclopédie (cit. n. 2), p. 23.

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  83. Arrêts du Conseil d’Etat du Roi, qui révoque les Lettres de privilège obtennues pour le Livre intitulé: Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des Sciences, Arts 000 Métiers, par une Société de gens de Lettres. Du 8 Mars 1759,p. 2. Bibliothèque Nationale, Collection Joly de Fleury, vol. 572, fol. 288; reprinted in Diderot, Oeuvres complètes,vol. 5, pp. 43–44.

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  85. [Jacob Nicolas Moreau], Nouveau mémoire pour servir à l’histoire des Cacouacs (Amsterdam, 1757), p. 24. This and the next question are direct quotations from Diderot, with one misquote. Where Diderot had written “La matière vivante se combine-t-elle avec de la matière vivante?” the quotation in Moreau’s memoir reads “La matière morte se combine avec la matière vivante?” Diderot asked a similar question about dead and living matter at another point in the same section, so the misquotation does not distort Diderot’s ideas. See Diderot, Pensées sur l’Interprétation de la nature,in Diderot, Oeuvre complètes (cit. n. 1), vol. 9, pp. 97–98, LVIII, 11, 14. I have used the Slatkine Reprint edition of Moreau’s memoir, which includes as well Giry de Saint-Cyr’s Catéchisme de décisions de cas de conscience à l’usage des Cacouacs (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1968).

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  90. Encyclopédie,vol. 15, p. 474A.

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  91. Encyclopédie,vol. 14, p. 149B.

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  92. Diderot’s publications from the post-1765 period include his Salon of 1767, 1769, 1771, 1775, and 1781; his Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (1773–1774); and several essays. See Furbank, Diderot (cit. n. 34), pp. 479–483.

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  93. Franz A. Kalker, in The Encyclopedists as a Group: A Collective Biography of the Authors of the Encyclopédie, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 345 (Oxford: The Voltaire Foundation, 1996), pp. 74, 75 n. 5, identifies nineteen (fourteen percent) of the contributors to the Encyclopédie as atheists, skeptics, or deists. In addition to Diderot and d’Alembert, this list includes Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger, Etienne-Noël Damilaville, Alexandre Deleyre, César Chesneau Du Marsais, Étienne-Maurice Falconet, Louis-Jacques Goussier, d’Holbach, Jean-Baptiste de La Chapelle, Nicolas Lenglet Du Fresnoy, Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, Jean-Denis de Montlovier, Jacques-Andrés Naigeon, Augustin Roux, Jean-François de Saint-Lambert, François-Vincent Toussaint, Anne-Rober- Jacques Turgot, and Voltaire.

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  94. Diderot to Princess.

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  1. University of Connecticut, USA

    Shirley A. Roe

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  1. Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

    Garland E. Allen

  2. University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

    Roy M. MacLeod

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Roe, S.A. (2001). Radical Nature in the Encyclopédie . In: Allen, G.E., MacLeod, R.M. (eds) Science, History and Social Activism. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 228. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2956-7_3

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