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Factors in Industrial Retardation

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Industrial Retardation in the Netherlands 1830–1850

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Abstract

A number of studies on European industrialisation have taken as their starting point the quality of entrepreneurship since, in the last analysis, the decision whether or not to adopt a new technology is made by individual businessmen. For example, it has been argued that the French business environment in the nineteenth century was characterised by a preponderance of family firms reluctant to seek funds for expansion for fear of jeopardising family control, distaining direct competition whenever it could be avoided and drowning in a sea of excess liquidity maintained as a precaution against the social stigma of bankruptcy. Similarly the relative decline of British industry from the last quarter of the nineteenth century has been attributed to the lethargy, conservatism, complacency and amateurism displayed by British entrepreneurs when confronted by the challenge of foreign competition. These entrepreneurial theories of retardation turn on the internal dynamics of business expansion (e.g. the family firm, third generation decline, outmoded traditions of craftsmanship, etc.) as well as upon the general social environment to explain the failure to innovate and expand.

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Notes to Chapter Three

  1. G. Luttenberg, Proeve van onderzoek omtrent het armenwezen in ons Vaderland, en de meest doeltreffende middelen, die verder, ter verbetering van het lot der armen, zouden kunnen aangewend worden, 35.

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  33. Ibid., 590.

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  38. Riemens, Het Amortisatie-syndicaat, 104.

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  39. Ibid., 142–144 (discussing the Fonds voor Nationale Nijverheid), 149 (discussing loans to the Javanese government), 158–167 (discussing direct investment in public works).

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  40. Houwink, `Een halve eeuw Nederlandsche staatsschuld’, 601.

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  41. Wet 27–12–1844, Staatsblad No. 77.

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  43. Ibid., 69–73.

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  44. Roland Holst, Kapitaal en arbeid in Nederland, 58.

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  45. See above 43.

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  46. Opbrengst der Rijksbelastingen van 1831 tot 1851,’ S.S.J.B., 1853, 314, 324–329. Bescheiden van de Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, Bescheiden betreffende de Geldmiddelen, Vol. II, 376–383.

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  47. The budgeted expenditure for the War Department leapt from f 1,629,947 in 1829 to f 12,100,000 in 1831. (Wet 27–12–1828, Staatsblad No. 87, Wet 29–12–1831, Staatsblad No. 38).

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  48. In 1828 total government domestic revenue amounted to f 70,710,657 shared among some six million people, representing a per capita level of f 11.75. (P.R.O. Foreign Office Papers FO–37–169 Baghot to Aberdeen, 15–1–1830, No. 4). By 1834 the level of per capita taxation had reached f 19.48 (Bescheiden betreffende de Geldmiddelen, Vol. II, 376–383).

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  49. P.H. Engels, De belastingen en de geldsmiddelen van den aanvang der Republiek tot op heden, 293. Between the beginning of 1830 and the end of 1833 the government floated loans to the value of f 199,000,000 for military purposes.

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  50. I.J. Brugmans, Paardenkracht en Mensenmacht. Sociaal-economische geschiedenis van Nederland, 1795–1940,185–186.

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  52. Sickenga, Geschiedenis der belastingen in Nederland, Vol. I, 109–111, 117–133. 53.Ibid., 173–175.

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  53. Ibid., 173–175.

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  54. Calculated from Bescheiden betreffende de Geldmiddelen, Vol. II, 376–383.

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  55. See above 46.

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  56. Details of the various laws imposing these taxes together with their main provisions can be found in Bescheiden betreffende de Geldmiddelen, Vol. II, 394–396.

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  57. Wet 26–12–1833, Staatsblad No. 72.

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  58. British Parliamentary Papers 1886, Vol. LX, 201.

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  59. Wet 8–6–1833, Staatsblad No. 15.

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  60. Wet 26–12–1833, Staatsblad No. 72 and 73.

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  61. Portielje, De handel van Nederland in 1844,119–120.

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  62. O.G. Heldring, Noodkreet over de belasting op het gemaal en den hoogen prijs van her brood, 10.

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  63. de Bosch Kemper, Geschiedkundig onderzoek naar de armoede in ons Vaderland, 212–219.

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  64. R.T. Griffiths, `The Role of Taxation in Wage Formulation in the Dutch Economy in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century’ in Ondernemende Geschiedenis: 22 opstellen geschreven bij her afscheid van Mr. H. van Riel als voorzitter van de vereniging Nederlands Economisch Historisch Archief, 262–263. This assumption of the participation rate is admittedly extremely crude but it does at least provide some reference point for comparison. Mokyr, using the same 1:4 ratio with a different set of figures arrives at a similar figure for the share of accijns in workers’ expenditure of 10 per cent or less. Mokyr, Industrialization in the Low Countries, 193.

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  65. Sickenga, Geschiedenis der belastingen in Nederland, Vol. I, 74.

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  66. Wet 16–6–1832, Staatsblad No. 30.

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  67. Sickenga, Geschiedenis der belastingen in Nederland, VoL I, 76–79.

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  68. de Bosch Kemper, Geschiedkundig onderzoek naar de armoede in ons Vaderland, 210–211.

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  69. J. Teijl, `Nationaal inkomen van Nederland in de periode van 1850–1900’, E.H.J.B. XXXIV (1971), 262.

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  70. D. Buddingh, Algemeene statistiek voor handel en nijverheid, Vol. III, 6–11, 14–15, assembles figures for central government expenditure and the size of population of European states in the mid-1840’s. These figures give a good indication of the unfavourable position of the Dutch government (although the figures must be qualified by the element of colonial income in budget expenditure). International Comparison of per capita Government expenditure (guilders). Great Britain Netherlands France Belgium Prussia 24.54 23.81 19.32 12.55 6.6

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  71. Wilson, `Taxation and the Decline of Empires’, 114–127.

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  72. I.J. Brugmans, `Economic Fluctuations in the Netherlands’, in Essays in European Economic History 1789–1914,eds. F. Crouzet, W.H. Chaloner and W.M. Stern, 152.

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  73. I.J. Brugmans, Statistieken van de Nederlandse nijverheid uit de eerste helft der 19e eeuw, Vols. I and II.

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  74. P.J.M. Aalberse, Een onbekende enquéte naar de arbeidstoestand in Nederland, gehouden in her jaar 1841. R.A. Gorter and S.W. de Vries, `Gegevens omtrent den kinderarbeid in Nederland volgens de enquêtes van 1841 en 1860’, E.H.J.B. Vol. VIII (1922), 1–253. Neither source succeeded in locating the figures for the province Gelderland which are to be found in A.R.A., Nationale Nijverheid, 26–10–1841, No. 114. I would like to thank Dr. J.A.P.G. Boot for drawing my attention to the Gelderland figures.

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  75. Brugmans, De arbeidende klasse in Nederland, 119.

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  76. Mokyr, Industrialization in the Low Countries, 170–181. The figures appeared earlier in his article `The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half on the Nineteenth Century. A Comparative Study’, Journal of European Economic History, Vol. XXXIV (1974), 385–387.

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  77. The following categories in Brugmans’ Statistieken van de Nederlandse Nijverheid have been removed in making the corrected calculations — Baai, bont en lint, bombazijn, breierijen, cashmir, flanel, garen, garentwijnderijen, haar bereiderij, haar spinnerij, hennepspinnerij, katoengarenfabriek, katoenspinnerij, katoenstoffenfabriek, katoentwijnderij, katoenweverij, lakenfabriek, linnenbandfabriek, linnen(geruit)—fabriek, linnen(pak)—fabriek, linnen(servet)—fabriek, linnenweverij, marseillefabriek, sajetfabriek, tapijt, vlasfabriek, vlashekelarij, vlasspinnerij, wolbreierij, wolkaarderij, wolkammerij, wollenstoffen, wolweverij, wolspinnerij, woltwijnderij, zijden stoffen, zijdetwijnderij and veenderij. The calculations made on the raw data yielded the following results: mean first, median second: (in cents) N. Holland (101, 100); S. Holland (86, 90); Zeeland (83, 83); Utrecht (85, 75); Friesland (77, 76); Groningen (76, 74); Gelderland (62, 60); Overijssel (62, 52); Limburg (57, 53); N. Brabant (56, 58); Drente (71, 80).

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  78. J.J. Roovers, De plaatselijke belastingen en financiën in den loop der tijden. Een historische schets, 52–53.

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  79. Ibid., 62–63.

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  80. Statistiek overzigt van het getal en de opbrengst der in onderscheidene provinciën en het Hertogdom Limburg op 1 Mei 1849 geheven opcenten op ‘s Rijks accijnsen, grond en personeelbelasting enz’, S.S.J.B.., 1851, 203–222.

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  81. Ibid., 220–221. Griffiths, `The Role of Taxation in Wage Formulation in the Dutch Economy’, Table 1, 265.

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  82. See above 53.

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  83. Not only was the level of indirect taxation high in the coastal provinces but in the larger towns, it fell heavily on subsistence items. Taking the towns already used as examples, the precentage of revenue from local taxes and imposts on important items of consumption was as follows: J.L. Bruyn Kops, Over indirecte belasting als middel van plaatselijke inkomsten, 9–13 for Amsterdam, Leiden, Haarlem and Delft. Since this source does not permit a full breakdown to be made for Rotterdam, the data has been calculated from A.R.A., R.A. Zuid Holland, Afdeling Gemeentebegrotingen.

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  84. Mokyr, Industrialization in the Low Countries, 197–201.

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  85. It will be interesting to see how far the picture on wages will be altered by the appearance of D. Damsma, J.M.M. de Meere and L. Noordegraaf, Stattstieken van de Nederlandse nijverheid uit de eerste helft der 19e eeuw Supplement which contains statistics for industrial wages in many of the smaller gemeentes not covered in Brugmans’ two volume survey.

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  86. Mokyr, Industrialization in the Low Countries, 193–197.

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  87. See above, Chapter 2 10–11.

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  88. Brugmans, De arbeidende Klasse in Nederland, 137.

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  89. A.R.A. Annual Reports Gov. Prov. Zeeland to King, 1831–1849.

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  90. A.R.A. Annual Reports Gov. Prov. N. Brabant to King, 1831–1848, V.G.S. Noord Brabant, 1849–1851.

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  91. A.R.A. Annual Reports Gov. Prov. Overijssel to King, 1834–1837.

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  92. V.G.S., Overijssel 1848–1851.

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  93. V.G.S., Drente 1844–1847.

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  94. V.G.S., Groningen 1842–1848.

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  95. V.G.S., Limburg 1844–1851. A.J.F. MeanenPetrusRegout 1801–1878. Een bijdrage tot de sociaal-economische geschiedenis van Maastricht, 351.

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  96. The provinces presented in this way are North Brabant (1845–1850), Overijssel (1832–1837), Drente (1843–1847), Groningen (1841), and Limburg (1830–1850).

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  97. The exception to these two categories is North Brabant (1830–1844) which gives figures for January, May, September and December only.

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  98. These provinces are Zeeland (1830–1848), Overijssel (1850) and Groningen (1844).

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  99. In this respect Limburg with 35 categories and North Brabant with 25 give the most comprehensice coverage whilst Zeeland and Groningen with 5 give the least.

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  100. This distinction is made by Limburg and North Brabant.

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  101. This distinction is made by Zeeland, Limburg and North Brabant.

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  102. Only Limburg makes this distinction.

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  103. V.G.S., Overijssel, 1835–1848.

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  104. Data can be found for the following towns: Almelo, Deventer, Kampen, Steenwijk, Zwolle (1833–1846 annual averages) V.G.S., Overijssel 1835–1847; Assen, Meppel, Coevorden, Hoogeveen (1847–1850 mid-year to mid-year averages) V.G.S., Drente 1847–1850; Arnhem, Zaltbommel, Culemborg, Nijmegen, Tiel, Zutphen (1847–1850 monthly and annual averages) V.G.S., Gelderland 1848–1851; ‘s-Gravenhage, Rotterdam, Leiden, Dordrecht, Delft, Schiedam, Gouda, Gorinchem (1848–1850 annual averages) V.G.S., Z. Holland 1849–1851; Groningen (1843–1850 annual averages) V.G.S., Groningen 1843–1851; Leeuwarden (1848–1850 fortnightly) V.G.S., Friesland 1849–1851; Middelburg (1830–1850 annual averages) Nieuwe Volgreeks, Vol. XLVI (1904), 31; Leiden (1830–1850 annual and monthly averages) Uittreksels uit berigten van leden correspondenten en Departementen der Ned. Huishoudelijke Maatschappij en van de Provinciale Commissiën van Landbouw in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 1830–1850.

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  105. Mokyr, Industrialization in the Low Countries, 177.

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  106. P. Uselding, `Wage and Consumption Levels in England and on the Continent in the 1830’s’, Journal of European Economic History, Vol. 4 (1975), 505. In the light of the wage differences which existed within such a small country as the Netherlands, global national comparisons should be treated with caution.

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  107. Mokyr, `The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries’, 376–377.

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  108. J.G. van Dillen, `De economische ontwikkeling van Nederland’ in Nederland tussen de Natiën, eds. J.A. Barstra and W. Banning, Vol. 2, 104.

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  109. M.G. de Boer, Leven en bedrijf van Gerhard Moritz Roentgen, grondvester van de Ned. Stoomboot Maatschappij, thans Maatschappij voor Scheeps-en werktuigbouw `Fijenoord, 1823–1923, 99.

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  110. H.C. Kuiler, Verkeer en vervoer in Nederland. Schets eener ontwikkeling sinds 1815, 2–4.

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  111. de Boer, Oranje en de welvaart van Nederland, 25.

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  112. L.C. van Kerkwijk, A Sketch of Public Works in the Netherlands, 38–39.

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  113. Ibid., 44–46.

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  114. Ibid., 63–65. It was also the second most expensive canal built in the Netherlands in this period, at the cost of nearly f 4,500,000.

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  115. L.G.J. Verbeine, `Het maatschappelijk leven in de eerste helft der negentiende eeuw’ in Geschiedenis van Nederland, Vol. 7, 153–154.

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  116. van Kerkwijk, A Sketch of Public Works in the Netherlands, 68–69.

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  117. de Boer, Leven en bedrijf van Gerhard Moritz Roentgen, 45.

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  118. A.R.A., Waterstaat 28–5–1836, No. 109. The figures which compare the freight rates between sail (Rotterdamsche beurtvaart) and steam (N.S.B.M.) are summarised in the table below

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  119. Kuiler, Verkeer en vervoer in Nederland, 50–51.

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  120. A.R.A., Steam engine survey 1851.

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  121. Wet 24–2–1815, Staatsblad, No. 18. The routes involved were Amsterdam/Brabant border; ‘s–Hertogenbosch/Luik; Utrecht/Deventer – Amsterdam/Texel (partial); Delft/Maassluis.

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  122. Koninklijk Besluit 25–7–1816, No. 19. See Figure 3:0 for details of routes.

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  123. Wet 20–1–1817, Staatsblad No. 9.

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  124. Koninklijk Besluit 16–7–1829, Staatsblad No. 16.

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  125. G.A. Fokker, ‘Bijdrage tot de geschiedenis en de statistiek der Kunstwegen in Zeeland’, S.S.J.B., 1857, 363–364.

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  126. H.J. van Deventer, ‘Kunstwegen in de provincie Overijssel’ S.S.J.B., 1859, 266.

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  127. C.C.M. Jacobs, `De verkeerssituatie in de 19e eeuw’ in De opkomst van Tilburg als industriestad, ed. H.F.J.M. van den Eerenbeemt, 73–74.

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  128. E. van Voorthuijsen, ‘Kunstwegen in de provincie Utrecht’, S.S.J.B., 1858, 337. 129.Ibid., 341.

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  129. Ibid., 341.

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  130. G.A. Venema, ‘Kunstwegen in de provincie Groningen’, S.S.J.B., 1861, 254. 131.Ibid., 257.

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  131. Ibid., 257.

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  132. Fokker, `Bijdrage tot de geschiedenis en de statistiek der Kunstwegen in Zeeland’, 363.

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  133. van Voorthuijsen, ‘Kunstwegen in de provincie Utrecht’, 339.

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  134. By 1855 North Brabant had spent f 1,215,647 on provincial roads (f 680,848 in the period up to 1848) of which only f 12,828 came from the central government. ‘Eenige bijdragen omtrent de wegen in Noord Brabant’, S.S.J.B., 1859, 345. In Overijssel the breakdown of figures up to 1850 is as follows: van Deventer, ’Kunstwegen in de provincie Overijssel’, 282.

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  135. J.H. Jonkers Nieboer, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche spoorwegen, Appendix E.

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  136. T.P. van der Kooij, Hollands stapelmarkt en haar verval, 77.

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  137. Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij 1839–1889, 34–35.

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  138. .Ibid., 42.

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  139. Ibid., 46–51. The most famous example of the havoc which this could cause is afforded by the case of a certain van der Gaag, who lived just outside Delft. He was the owner of a small lane which the railway would have to cross. The railway offered f 100 for the 150 sq. yds. which it required but, backed by a group of protesters, he stuck out for a price of f 20,000 which the company, not unnaturally, was unwilling to pay. Instead it constructed a loop of 530 metres to avoid the land. This, in turn, necessitated splitting the train into two to negotiate the bend. Thus a second engine and driver were continuously on stand-by and a turntable installed so that it could serve the line in both directions.

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  140. Ibid., 52.

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  141. Jonkers Nieboer. Geschiedenis der Nederlandse spoorwegen, 48.

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  142. Hollandse IJzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij, Appendix E.

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  143. Jonkers Nieboer, Geschiedenis der Nederlandse spoorwegen, 42–44.

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  144. Ibid., 37–46.

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  145. Verberne, `Het maatschappelijk leven in de eerste helft der negentiende eeuw’, 96.

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  146. J.C. Westerman, Kamer van Koophandel en fabrijken voor Amsterdam, Gedenkboek samengesteld van het 125-jarig bestaan, Vol. I, 265.

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  147. HollandseIJzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij, 73–75.

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  148. See above 66.

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  149. G.A. Rotterdam; Archief Fijenoord, Journaal, 1831, 61.

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  150. See above, 52.

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  151. British Parliamentary Papers, 1886, Vol. LX, 201.

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  152. Relations commerciales de la Belgique et de la France - Observations présentées au parlement par le comité des houillères du couchant de Mons, 26.

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  153. G.A. Rotterdam; Archief Fijenoord, Journaal, 1843.

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  154. A.R.A.Annul Report Gov. Prov. N. Brabant to King, 1843.

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  155. Ibid., Annual Report, 1844.

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Authors
  1. Richard T. Griffiths
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© 1979 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

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Griffiths, R.T. (1979). Factors in Industrial Retardation. In: Industrial Retardation in the Netherlands 1830–1850. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1877-6_3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1877-6_3

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