Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Chlorine and the Environment pp 385–403Cite as

The future for the chlorine industry

  • Chapter

Abstract

Despite the enormous commercial success of the chlorine industry, its future is by no means certain. On the one hand, it is well established and, because of the cross-subsidy of the chlorine and sodium hydroxide sides of the business, the fundamental chloralkali production process is economically stable. On the other, the evidence against it in environmental terms has been accumulating for some 40 years and enormous amounts of governmental money is spent on the remediation and monitoring of the problems it causes; the profitability of the chlorine industry is largely attributable to the fact that in reality, the polluter often does not pay. Persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity and formation of toxic by-products are environmentally hazardous properties which, although not exclusive to the products of the chlorine industry, are, nevertheless, frequently exhibited by them. There is no high production volume organochlorine that is not associated with serious environmental disbenefits. Consequently, organochlorines figure prominently in almost every national or international instrument designed to minimise chemical pollution. Already it has been proposed by some that the entire chlorine industry be phased out and the available economic projections confirm that it is feasible.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Antonsson, A.-B. (1995) Substitution of dangerous chemicals- the solution to problems with chemical health hazards in the work environment? American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 56: 394–397

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Auer, M.R. (1997) Risk perception and international environmental affairs: the organochlorine debate between Sweden and Finland. Ambio 26 (6): 359–362

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, R.U. (1998) Towards a zero-emissions economy. Environmental Science and Technology 32 (15): 366A–367A

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartell, S.M. (2000) Are ecosystems hormetic? Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 6 (2): 237–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchi, A.P. and Varney, M.S. (1998) Volatile organic compounds in the surface waters of a British estuary. Part 1. Occurrence, distribution and variation. Water Research 32 (2): 352–370

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bridges, J.S. (1994) U.S. EPA’s pollution prevention RDandD results: “practical tools for the trade”. Water Science and Technology 29 (8): 193–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Bro–Rassmussen, F., Lekke, H., Kristensen, P., Laursen, E., Boyd, H.B., Jorgensen, C.E. and Nielsen, K.M. (1996) The non–assessed chemicals in EU. Report and recommendations from an interdisciplinary group of Danish experts. Publ: Danish Board of Technology, ISBN 87–90221–10–9, 120 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, J. (1997) Defining goals and conditions for a sustainable world. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 (11): 1164–1170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chemical Week (1998) Chlorine. Chemical Week 160 (42): 31

    Google Scholar 

  • Cliff, R. (1997) Clean technology-the idea and the practice. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 68: 347–350

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Commonwealth of Massachusetts (1989) An act to promote reduced use of toxic and hazardous substances in the Commonwealth. House No. 6161: 2–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Deisler, P.F. (2000) A personal perspective on hormesis Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 6 (2): 245–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diderich, R. and Ahlers, J. (1995) Risk assessment of existing chemicals-technical guidance documents adopted by the EU. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2 (2): 116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dower, R.C. (1990) Hazardous wastes. IN: Public policies for environmental protection, Allen, S. [Ed.], publ: Resources for the Future, ISBN 0–915707–52–7: 151–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Duke, L.D. (1994) Pollution prevention and hazardous waste management in two industrial metal finishing facilities. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials 11 (3): 435–457

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EC (1999a) Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) draft best available techniques reference document on the chlor-alkali industry. February 1999, 160 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • EC (1999b) Study on the economic and social implications of introducing community-wide restrictions on the marketing and use of short chain chlorinated paraffins. Publ: European Commission DGIII, 86 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • EEA (1998) Chemicals in the European environment: low doses, high stakes? The EEA and UNEP annual message on the state of Europe’s environment. Publ: European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, 32 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • ENDS (1997) Insider blames City short-termism for ICI’s environmental problems. ENDS Report 268: 3

    Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada (1997) A technical and socio-economic comparison of options to products derived from the chlor-alkali industry. Final Report. 294 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Euro Chlor (1997) Mercury emissions from chlor-alkali production. Presented by Euro Chlor to the Oslo and Paris Conventions for the Prevention of Marine Pollution Joint Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions (OSPAR) Brussels, 2–5 September 1997, OSPAR 97/4/NG0.4-E, 4 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Euro Chlor (1998) Reduction of mercury emissions from the West European chlor alkali industry. Presented by Euro Chlor to the OSPAR working group on Point Sources (POINT), Copenhagen 30 November-4 December 1998, POINT 98/11/1-E, lOpp

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentile, G.H. and van der Schalie, W.H. (2000) Hormesis and ecological risk assessment: fact or fantasy? Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 6 (2): 227–236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, J. (1999) The economic importance of chlor-alkali products, and alternatives to those products, to the Canadian economy. Chemosphere 38 (11): 2533–2548

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, S.L. (1994) How green production might sustain the world. Illahee 10 (1): 4–14

    Google Scholar 

  • IJC (1992) Sixth Biennial Report Under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978 to the Governments of the United States and Canada and the State and Provincial Governments of the Great Lakes Basin. Publ: International Joint Commission, Washington, Ottawa, Windsor and Detroit, 3O pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P.A. and Stringer, R.L. (1991) Protecting the North Sea: The analytical challenge. Analytical Proceedings 28: 249–250

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P.A., Stringer, R., French, M.C. and Vallette, J. (1991a) Contamination of soils and sediments in the vicinity of a mercury recovery plant. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and. Toxicology 46: 74–78

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P.A., MacGarvin, M. and Stringer, R.L. (1991b) Regulation of effluents and implications for environmental policy. Water Science and Technology 24 (10): 19–27

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P.A., MacGarvin, M. and Stringer, R.L. (1990) Regulation of effluents and implications for environmental policy. Proceedings of an International Conference on North Sea Pollution: Technical Strategies for improvement. September 1990 Publ. IAWPRC/EWPCA pp 83–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P.A., Santillo, D. and Stringer, R.L. (1996) Risk assessment and reality: Recognising the limitations. IN: Environmental Impact of Chemicals: Assessment and Control. Quint, M., Purchase, R. and Taylor, D. (Eds.) Publ: Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. ISBN 0–85404–795–6: pp. 223–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P., Stringer, R., Santillo, D. and Howard, V. (1998) Hazard, exposure and ecological risk assessment. In Environmental Management in Practice, Volume 1: Instruments for environmental management. 13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nath, L. Hens, P.Compton and D Devuyst [Eds]. Publ. Routledge, London. ISBN 0–415–14906–1: pp. 169–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Landrigan, P.J., Graham, D.G. and Thomas, N.C. (1994) Environmental neurotoxic illness-research for prevention. Environmental Health Perspectives 102 (Suppl. 2): 117–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leblanc, G.A. (1994) Assessing deleterious ecosystem-level effects of environmental pollutants as a means of avoiding evolutionary consequences. Environmental Health Perspectives 102 (3): 266–267

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, O. and Mosedale, T. (1997) The precautionary principle as a norm of customary international law. Journal of Environmental Law 9 (2): 221–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mbiapo, F. and Youvoup, G. (1993) Regulation of pesticides in Cameroon. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 39: 1–10

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McColloch, A. and Midgley, P.M. (1998) Estimated historic emissions of fluorocarbons from the European Union. Atmospheric Environment 32 (9): 1571–1580

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitra, J. and Raghu, K. (1998) Long term DDT pollution in tropical soils: effect of DDT and degradation products on soil microbial activities. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 60: 585–591

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, J.R., Phillips, P.S. and Read, A.D. (1998) The UK landfill tax: an analysis of its contribution to sustainable waste management. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 23: 259–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muir, T. and Harris, J. (1996) Comparison of technical and socio-economic factors for chlor-alkali-based products and alternatives for Canada. Organohalogen Compounds 30: 257–262

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Natan, T.E.Jr. and Miller, C.G. (1998) Are toxics release inventory reductions real? Environmental Science and Technology 32 (15): 368A–374A

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Opschoor, J.B. and Hafkamp, W.A. (1991) Approaches to economic evaluation of environmental effects of PMPs: a general introduction. IN: Persistent pollutants, Opschoor and Pearce (Eds.), Publ: Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0–7923–1168–X: 43–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Opschoor, J.B. and Pearce, D.W. (1991) Persistent organic pollutants: A challenge for the nineties. IN: Persistent pollutants, Opschoor and Pearce (Eds.), Publ: Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0–7923–1168X: 1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Peakall, D.B. (1996) Disrupted patterns of behaviour in natural populations as in index of ecotoxicity. Environmental Health Perspectives I04 (Suppl. 2): 331–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Petek, J. and Glavic, P. (1996) An integral approach to waste minimization in process industries. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 17: 169–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel, D. (1996) Green revolution agriculture and chemical hazards. The Science of the Total Environment 188 (Suppl. 1): S86–S98

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rankine, K. (1996) Building the future: a guide to building without PVC. Publ: Greenpeace, UK 30 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandin, P. (1999) Dimensions of the precautionary principle. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 5 (5): 889–907

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santillo, D., Johnston, P. and Singhofen, A. (1999) The way forward: out of the chemicals crisis. Publ: Greenpeace International, ISBN 90–73361–49–4, 23 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santillo, D., Stringer, R., Johnston, P. and Tickner, J. (1998) The Precautionary Principle: Protecting against failures of scientific method and risk assessment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 36 (12): 939–950

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santillo, D. and Johnston, P.A. (1999) Is there a role for risk assessment within precautionary legislation? Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 5 (5): 923–932

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, V.J., Johnston, P.A., Swindlehurst, R.J. and Vethaak, A.D. (1994) Effect of exposure to harbour dredge spoils on immune capability in the common shrimp, Crangon crangon. Poster paper presented at the Scientific Symposium on the 1993 North Sea Quality Status Report, Ebeltoft, Denmark, April 18–21, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  • Stebbing, A.R.D. (2000) Maia hypothesis — growth control and toxicology. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 6 (2): 301–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thijsse, Th.R., Roemer, M.G.M. and van Oss, R.F. (1999) Trends in large-scale VOC concentrations in the southern Netherlands between 1991 and 1997. Atmospheric Environment 33: 3803–3812

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R.K., Salmons, R., Powell, J. and Craighill, A. (1998) Green taxes, waste management and political economy. Journal of Environmental Management 53: 121–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP (1994) Government strategies and policies for cleaner production. Publ: UNEP, ISBN 92–807–1442–2, 32 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg, M., Birnbaum, L., Bosveld, A.T.C., Brunstrbm, B., Cook, P., Feeley, M., Giesy, J.P., Hanberg, A., Hasegawa, R., Kennedy, S.W., Kubiak, S.W., Kubiak, T., Larsen, J.C., Van Leeuwen, F.X.R., Liem, A.K.D., Nolt, C., Peterson, R.E., Poellinger, L. Safe, S., Schrenk, D., Tillitt, D., Tysklind, M., Younes, M., Wærn, F. and Zacharewski, T. (1998) Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs for humans and wildlife. Environmental Health Perspectives 106 (12): 775–792

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Greenpeace Research Laboratories, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK

    Ruth Stringer & Paul Johnston

Authors
  1. Ruth Stringer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul Johnston
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2001 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Stringer, R., Johnston, P. (2001). The future for the chlorine industry. In: Chlorine and the Environment. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9813-2_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9813-2_15

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-90-481-5645-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-015-9813-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation