Abstract
The young Johann Heinrich Alsted was not a millenarian, yet the origins of his mature millenarianism must be sought above all in his youth. Living in the heyday of central European Calvinism in the decade before 1620, the young Herborner initially looked forward not to the millennium of Revelation chapter 20 but to a final brief period of unprecedented illumination beginning in the near future and ending with the Second Coming and Last Judgement in 1694. The sources from which he patched together this vision were not so much biblical or theological as a startling variety of astrological, alchemical, and generally ‘hermetic’ or ‘occult’ texts originating at the margins of the central European Reformed tradition or mediated to him through it. If the origins of Alsted’s optimistic expectation of an imminent future golden age are to be found primarily in this hermetic tradition, however, the origins of his millenarianism stricto sensu are to be found in the destruction of that optimism in the early years of the Thirty Years War. Encouraged partly by a further conflation of astrological history and biblical numerology, Alsted tenaciously retained his youthful aspirations until the unmitigated disasters of the mid-1620s forced him to abandon his hopes for the immediate friture, withdraw the hermetic components from the foreground of his system, and recast his hopes as the more defensible and biblically grounded expectation of a literal millennium beginning rather than ending in 1694.
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References
On Alsted’s relations with Martinius and Crocius, see Hotson, Alsted, pp. 11, 12, 15, 117–19.
Irlen studied in Herborn under Aisted in 1615 before moving to Groningen in 1616 and Franeker in 1620. He was professor of theology in Herborn 1622–38 and court preacher in Dillenburtg 1622–27. Cf. Nass. Drucke, no. 95; F. W. Cuno, Geschichte der Stadt Siegen (Dillenberg, 1872), pp. 160–71; ADB xiv. 584.
W. Goeters, Die Vorbereitung des Pietismus in der reformierten Kirche der Niederlande bis zur Labadistischen Krisis 1670 (Leipzig, 1911), pp. 49–50,
Gottlob Schrenk, Gottesreich und Bund im älteren Protestantismus vornehmlich bei Johannes Coccejus (Gütersloh, 1923), p. 334, and Moltmann, ‘Brocard’, p. 126, all regard Crocius as a millenarian; but the references they supply provide insufficient documentation to be certain. The main work cited is Crocius’ Syntagma sacrae theologiae quo exhibe tur idea dogmatum ecclesiastic or urn (Bremen, 1636); but pp. 312–21 of this work include only a rather noncommittal (and certainly not explicitly millenarian) account of the end of the world. They also refer to Corrodi, Kritische Geschichte des Chiliasmus, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 60–6; but this passage describes a radical millenarian pamphlet reprinted as an appendix to the anti-spiritualist treatise, Anti-Weigelius (2 vols., Kassel, 1651), by Ludwig’s brother, Johannes Crocius. Crocius’ eschatology, like other aspects of his thought, would repay closer study.
Alsted’s Theses de creatione under Martinius were submitted to the academic senate for publication on 29 Nov. 1604 and again on 10 Jan. 1605 (Wiesbaden HStA 95, 782, fol. 333; 95, 783, fol. 156); but no copy seems to have survived.
In a manner reminiscent of Piscator’s commentaries on the Isaiah, it is possible (though not necessary) to read in a millenarian fashion the conclusion of the historical section of Martinius’ Idea encyclopaediae, p. 355: ‘Summatim haec Deus patefacit: quòd Ecclesia multorum hostium tyrannidem et haereticas imposturas sit sensura, conservanda tarnen et ab Antichristi favore gloriose liberanda: quodque sub fìnem mundi multae et magnae futurae sint perturbationes.’
The English edition of the Naturae constantia translates the reference to ‘Mathias Martinus p.m.’ as ‘my Master’ (‘praeceptor meus’). The otherwise detailed account of Jonston’s education in his funeral pamphlet makes no mention of his studies under Martinius; and since Martinius died in 1630, about the time this book was written, this abbreviation should probably be interpreted as ‘of pious memory’. Jonston’s relations with Martinius were nevertheless close: he also obtained a letter of recommendation from Martinius to the archbishop of Canterbury in 1630: see Elias Thomae, Lampas Perenni-Luca, Oder Wol-verdientes Ehren-Licht ... Johanni Jonstono (Brieg, 1675), p. 55.
Jonston, Naturae constantia: seu diatribe in qua mundum rec ratione sui totius nee ratione partium perpetuo in pejus ruere ostenditur (Amsterdam, 1632), p. 160: Tllius sententiae sunt turn Carolus Gallus . . . tum Georgius Hakewill. . . tum Mathias Martinus p.m. in Epistola responsoria ad meas literas quibus ejus sententiam de hac materia anno 1628 exquisivi. Hujus sunt Alstedius et Piscatori A misreading of this passage appears to be the source of the erroneous view that Martinius regarded the millennium as having already begun in 1628.
Cf. for instance J. F. Iken, ‘Die Bremer und die Synode von Dordrecht’, Bremisches Jahrbuch, 10 (1878), 11–105; Schrenk, Gottesreich und Bund, pp. 67–73 et passim; Gerhard Menk, ‘Kalvinismus und Pädagogik. Matthias Martinius (1572–1630) und der Einfluß der Hohen Schule Herborn auf Johann Arnos Comenius’, Nassauische Annalen, 91 (1980), 77–104; and Hotson, Aisted, pp. 117–19.
Anon., Relation tres-veritable, et miraculeuse, d’une jeune fille de Boheme, demeurant à présent à Lesno en Pologne, laquelle depuis un an en çà a eu diverses extases, et revelations (Geneva, 1629), p. 63: ‘Qu’auant le dernier iour, et la fin du monde, passeront encor mille ans. ... Il semble qu’elle conuient auec les modernes Chiliastes.’ An excerpt, together with a Polish translation and demonstration of authorship, is found in Tadeusz Bilikiewcz, Jan Jonston 1603–1675. Zywot i dzialalnosc lekarska (Warsaw, 1931), pp. 174–87.
See also W. Bickerich, ‘Ein ärztliches Gutachten über Christina Poniatowska’, Zeitschrift der Historischen GesseIschaft für die Provinz Posen, 25 (1910), 177–97;
Adam Matuszewski, ‘Jan Jonston’, Studia Comeniana et Historica, 19 (1989), 37–53, here pp. 39, 50.
Wiesbaden HStA 95 320 II, fol. 185: ‘De visionibus autem modernis iudicium exposcere animus erat, praesertim nobilis cuiusdam in Polonia virginis, nobilis illius theologi dn. Juliani Poniatovii de Druchniki filiae. Quae requiri ad cognitionem videbantur, hic habes, prout etiam ad dn. Ledelium et dn. Amesium misi. Misissem ipsas conscriptas, sed unum modo exemplar suppetit nee amanuensis praesto inter ignotos degenti. Interrili triginta Ecstasibus ne satis, quid rei sit, assequi valeo. Quantum ad alios, damnant nonulli, adorant nonnulli tanquam divina, admirantur nonnulli, judicium hoc ante eventum nullum est. D. Georgius Vechnerus Bethanien-sis in Uteris ad me diabolica vult.... Quid de tuo millenario sentiat, ex annexis videbis. Ille vero solus scopulus, ad quem omnes fere in iudicio allidunt: Non videtur cum ultima hora millenarius consistere posse (inqunt) et uniformis Ecclesiae Christianae status subcruce esse etc. Dixi fere. Sunt enim nonnulli, qui tibi subscribunt. Adiciam calculum, si solares esse hos annos demonstra-veris.’ There is an imperfect transcription of this letter in Theodor Wotschke, ‘Johann Johnston an J. H. Alsted’, Deutsche wissenschaftliche Zeitung für Polen, 29 (1935), 108. For Alsted’s ties with Vechner, see Hotson, ‘Alsted’s Relations with Silesia’, pp. 29–30.
See the discussions in Richard Foster Jones, Ancients and Moderns: a Study of the Rise of the Scientific Movement in Seventeenth-Century England (rev. ed., St Louis, 1961; repr. New York, 1982), pp. 22–40; Webster, Great Instauration, pp. 19–21; and on Hakewill also Victor Harris, All Coherence Gone: a Study of the Seventeenth Century Controversy over Disorder and Decay in the Universe (London, 1949, 1966).
See above, ch. 1. n. 16.
John Venn and J. A. Venn (eds.), Alumni Cantabrigiensis, pt. 1, vol. ii (Cambridge, 1922), p. 479a.
Jonston, Naturae constantia, pp. 156-M82’, quoting from the English trans., An History of the Constancy of Nature (London, 1657), pp. 170–80.
Alsted calls Pareus ‘praeceptor meus colendus’ in the Systema mnemonicum maius, i. 416–40, and evidently studied under him in Heidelberg in 1608. At the outset of his literary career, Alsted refers to the ‘celeberrimus Anglorum Hugo Brougthonus [sic], praeceptor de me optime meritus’ (Systema mnemonicum. maius, ii. 140), to ‘Hugonem Brougthonum Anglum praeceptorem nostrum in Hebraicis et Chalaicis’ (Orator, 1612, p. 137), and to a distinction learned ‘à praeceptore meo Cl. V. Hugone Brougthono Anglo’ (Methodus mathematicorum, p. 240). Likewise towards the end of his life: ‘Brougthonus, praeceptor noster in unguis’ (Trifolium propheticum, p. 159). Further citations include Cursus, i. 2855; Ency., pp. 2032.b.3, 2217.b.5, 2405, and esp. p. 199.b.3: ‘Hâc de re insigne [de Massoritis Judaeorum] est Canticum apud Hugonem Brugthonum Anglum in commentario ad Danielem.’ Broughton’s movements on the continent are obscure and the circumstances of Alsted’s encounter with him are unknown. On his approach to prophecy, see Firth, Apocalyptic Tradition, pp. 152–63 et passim.
Even Piscator, finally, is strangely distant from the historical tradition of Protestant apocalyptic. He reads the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament most often in praeterist terms, he interprets the central symbolic sequences of the Apocalypse in a generally spiritual fasion, he rejects the non-canonical prophecy of Elias and many of the other hallmarks of the historical tradition of Protestant apocalyptic, and he therefore derives his millenarianism almost exclusively from a close logical analysis of Revelation chapter 20.
Postel’s centrality is frequently emphasised in Âkerman, Rose Cross over the Baltic. On Postel, see esp. William Bouwsma, Concordia Mundi: the Career of Guillaume Postel (Cambridge, Mass., 1957);
M. L. Kuntz, Guillaume Postel: Prophet of the Restitution of All Things (The Hague, 1981); and Guillaume Postel, 1581–1981 [Actes du Colloque international d’Avranches, 5–9 septembre 1981] (Paris, 1985).
Cf. the literature cited above, eh. 3 nn. 2, 4–9, 13 and 26. On the comet more generally, see Clarisse Doris Hellman, The Comet of 1577: its Place in the History of Astronomy (New York, 1944, repr. 1971); and van Nouhuys, The Age of Two-Faced Janus: the Comets of 1577 and 1618.
A key conclusion of Akerman’s Rose Cross over the Baltic, p.241, is that The common feature of the pamphlets [produced in the course of the Rosicrucian furore] is a particular millenarian tone generated by the astronomical theory of the great conjunctions’.
Two very inadequate attempts to survey this dimension of the problem are Haase, Das Problem des Chiliasmus und der Dreißigjährige Krieg; and Herbert Narbuntowicz, Reformorthodoxe, spiritualistische, chiliastische und utopische Entwürfe einer menschlichen Gemeinschaft als Reaktion auf den Dreißigjährigen Krieg. Vladimir Urbânek is currently conducting important research on millenarianism amongst Bohemian and Moravian refugees.
For a more extensive account of Alsted’s reception by later English proponents and opponents of millenarianism, see Clouse, The Influence of Alsted’, chs. IV and V; id., ‘Alsted and English Millenarianism’.
Thesaurus chronologiae (1624), p. 324.8; (1628), p. 482.8: ‘Anno Chr. 1642 accidet conjunctio Saturni et Jovis in Ariete, quae portendit novi alicujus imperii revolutionem.’ Cf. the last of the ‘Res Memorablies’ list in the main column of the ‘Speculum mundi’: ‘Ab anno 1603. ad an. 1642. maximam universus orbis experietur mutationem’. Nam istorum annorum XL spatio ad finem decurrit septima revolutio planetarum
Nuncius Propheticus: sive, syllabus selectiss. vaticiniorum theologico-mathematicorum, quae ultimam hanc mundi senectutem, necnon perturbatum Ecclesiae, & reip. Anglicanae statum respicere videntur (London, 1642) (Wing, L 1851).
The dedication is dated ‘XV. Cal. Novembr. An. MDCXLIF; and George Thomason’s copy in the British Library is inscribed ‘London, 31 octob: 1642’: see Catalogue of the Pamphlets. . . collected by George Thomason, 1640–1661 (2 vols., London, 1908), i. 188.
Nuncius Propheticus, ‘Tergeminum Praesagium Henrici Alstedii usquequàque Doctissimi, qua sacris Oraculis, qua Astrolog. Dectretis innixum’, pp. 33–44. Alsted is also cited elsewhere in this volumes in the prefatory material (fols. tlv, 1[2r, A4r,v) and in the other texts (pp. 4, 9, 15, 24, 59, 75).
Cf. Nuncius Propheticus, pp. 33–4 with Aisted, Thesaurus chronologiae (1628), ‘Speculum mundi’ (Figure 1), bottom of column 7; and Cursus, p. 30 (= Ency., fol. D5V, p. 46; quoted above, ch. 3 n. 38).
Nuncius Propheticus, p. 34 with Alsted, Thesaurus chronologiae (1628), ‘Chronolgia magnarum conjunctionum’, p. 484.9: ‘Ab hoc currente Anno 1623 usque ad 1694 erit, protasis sive praeparatio ad mille annos apocalypticis, quibus elapsis incipiet bellum Gog et Magog, et hoc excipiet illustris iste adventus Domini ad judicium, quod quando sit futurum iile solus novit. Nos ex Scripturis hoc solum novimus mille annos et bellum Gogiticum, ut appellatur, anteces-sura ultimum Judicium.’
Cf. Nuncius Propheticus, p. 34 with Alsted, Thesaurus chronologiae (1628), ‘Chronolgia magnarum conjunctionum’, p. 482.8: ‘Anno Chr. 1642 accidit conjunctio Saturni et Jovis in Ariete, quae portendit novi alicuius imperii revolutionem.’
Nuncius propheticus, p. 38 (not in Triple Presage): ‘. . . non ab obscuro, infimio aut anonymo homuncione, sed à T. B. viro in omni literarum genere (quod Sixtus Senens. De Card. Cusano) admirando, Mathematico, Philosopho & Theologo supra quam cuique credibile sit, eruditissimo.’*
Nuncius propheticus, p. 41 (cf. Triple Presage, p. 10).
Nuncius propheticus, pp. 34, 42, 43–4 (cf. Triple Presage, pp. 12, 13).
Nuncius propheticus, p. 40 (cf. Triple presage, p. 10).
Anon., The Worlds Proceeding Woes and Succeeding Joy es 1. In crue 11 Warres and vehement Plagues. 2. In happy Peace and Vnity amongst all living Creatures. Or, The Triple Presage of Henry Alsted (A man every way most learned) depending as well on the Oracles of Heaven, as on the opinions of the greatest Astrologers. With An Addition of the fiery Conjunction of Saturn and Iupiter, this instant February; denouncing many Calamities to the world, or certaine Regions thereof In which discourse, is discovered the opinions of many Learned men concerning Christs personall reign upon Earth, and confirmed by the most comfortable ProphecieofTycho Brahe, toughing the most blessed age even now at hand (London, 1642): Wing A 2927. Even much of the title of this pamphlet is pieced together from the headings on pp. 33, 35, and 38 of the Nuncius propheticus. Thomason’s copy is dated ‘feb: 15 [1642]’ (old style): Thomason, Catalogue, i. 233. On the date of the conjunction, see also Nuncius, p. 34.
The title of this first publication of Alsted in English thus associates his name with the premillennialism of the ‘Tergeminium Praesagium’, and this may be the origin of the widespread, persistent, but wholely erroneous idea that Alsted was a premillennialist — that is, that he awaited the Second Coming of Christ before the millennium and thought that the saints would enjoy Christ’s literal kingship on earth during the millennium. Alsted never suggests that Christ will return before the millennium; his itemisations of the benefits enjoyed by the church during the millennium include no hint of Christ’s physical presence (cf. Diatribe, pp. 14, 22, 28, 71–2); and the statement of Apoc. 20: 4 that the saints reign during the millennium ‘with Christ’ is explained in the Diatribe (pp. 39–40) as follows: ‘Cum Christo.] Qui toto hoc tempore regnabit in coelo visibiliter, in his terris invisibiliter, visibili regno resignato martyri-bus.’ Cf. Paratala theologica, ‘Adventus Christi’, p. 6a, and the very briefpassages in the Compendium theologicum, pp. 295–6; Distinctiones theologicae, p. 137; and Ency., p. 1634.a-b. Johann Kvacala, ‘Johann Heinrich Alstedt’, Ungarische Revue, 9 (1889), 628–42, pp. 640–1 claims that Alsted’s last large work, the Prodromus religionis triumphantis, does teach a literal reign of Christ on earth. The passage he seems to be referring to (p. 1034) is in fact a description, quoted from the commentary on Daniel by the Jesuit Benedictes Pererius, of the form of materialistic patristic chiliasm which Alsted wishes to distinguish from his own. He explicitly condemns the idea of a literal reign of Christ on earth on pp. 1037–8: ‘Principiò igitur negamus, Christum in terris regnaturum cum suis. . . . Nam prior ista phrasis signficat cum Christo, id est, spirituali modo, regnare in terris.’ Even his contemporary critics were well aware that Alsted was not a premillennialist: see for instance Thomas Hayne, Christ ‘s Kingdome on Earth, Opened According to the Scriptures (London, 1645), p. 27; Baillie, Dissuasive, p. 224.
Happy News to England Sent from Oxford (Oxford, 1642), fol. A4r. Thomason’s copy is dated 17 Feb. 1642 (old style): Catalogue, i. 234.
The Beloved City; or the Saints Reign on Earth a Thousand Years; Asserted, and Illustrated from LXV. places of Holy Scripture; Besides the judgement of Holy Learned men, both at home and abroad; and also Reason on it selfe. Likewise XXXV. Objections against the Truth are here answered. Written in Latine by loan. Henr. Alstedius, . . . Faithfully Englished; With some occasional Notes; And the Judgement herein [not only ofTycho Brahe, and Carolus Gallus; but also] of some of our owne famous Divines. . .. (London, 1643): Wing, A 2924. Thomason’s copy is dated 20 Feb. 1642 (old style): Catalogue, i. 235.
Nuncius propheticus, p. 42; Beloved City, p. 240.
Nuncius propheticus, fol. Plv.
Burton’s note, Beloved City, p. 57. The bizarre folation of the appendixes to the Beloved City present a bibliographical puzzle which has yet to be solved.
Cf. Beloved City, p. 62; Nuntius propheticus, pp. 14–16, esp. marginal note p. 15, which refers to Diatribe, p. 120 (quoted above p. 138) and Ency., p. 1076.b. (quoted above, pp. 47–8).
Beloved City, fol A2\
His occasional notes to The Beloved City reveal that Burton obtained a transcription from a manuscript of Theodoret in the Bodleian Library from 4my learned and worthy friend M. Henry Jacob of Oxford’, was also in contact with the professor of Arabic, Edward Pococke, and was fully conversant with the works of the professor of divinity, John Prideaux: see Beloved City, pp. 34, 36, 54, 55, 64, 69; and on all these figures, Nicholas Tyacke (ed.), Seventeenth-Century Oxford [The History of the University of Oxford, vol. 4] (Oxford, 1997).
Bernard Capp, Astrology and the Popular Press: English Almanacs 1500–1800 (London and Boston, 1979), pp. 354, 396 n. 90. Anthony Wood, Athenae Oxoniensis, ed. P. Bliss (3 vols., Oxford, 1813–20), iii. 440.
Cf. Capp, Astrology and the Popular Press, pp. 164–79, esp. pp. 169–70, 178; Christopher Hill, Antichrist in Seventeenth-Century England (Oxford, 1971), pp. 187–8.
Nuntius propheticus, pp. 35, 36; Triple Presage, pp. 5, 6.
Wilkinson, Babylons Ruine, Jerusalems Rising (London, 1643); Ball, A Great Expectations. 112 n. 160.
Ilan Rachum, ‘The Term “Revolution” in Seventeenth-Century English Astrology’, History of European Ideas, 18 (1994), 869–83, here pp. 872–3.
Spina, De mundi catastrophe, hoc est de maxima rerum mundanarum revolutione post annum 1632 (Iesi, 1625); which is the basis of Lilly, The World’s Catastrophe, or Europes many Mutations untili 1666 (London, 1647). Clavis apocalyptica: or, A Prophetical Key: by which The great Mysteries in the Revelation of St John, and the Prophet Daniel are opened, trans. Samuel Hartlib (London, 1651). On the authorship of this work, see Abraham von Franckenberg, Briefwechsel, ed. Joachim Telle (Stuttgart, 1995), p. 322; Martin Mulsow, ‘Who was the Author of the Clavis apocalyptica of 1651? Millenarianism and Prophecy between Silesian Mysticism and the Hartlib Circle’, in Laursen and Popkin (eds.), Continental Millenarianism (forthcoming 2001). See Rachum, ‘The Term “Revolution”’, pp. 873–4, 875–6.
See V. F. Snow, ‘The Concept of Revolution in Seventeenth-Century England’, Historical Journal, 2 (1962), 167–74; M. Lasky, The Birth of a Metaphor: on the Origins of Utopia and Revolution’, Encounter, (Feb. 1970), 35–45; (March 1970), 30–42; Christopher Hill, The Word “Revolution”‘, in A Nation of Change and Novelty (London, 1990), pp. 82–101.
Most pointedly in Alastair MacLachlan, The Rise and Fall of Revolutionary England: an Essay on the Fabrication of Seventeenth-Century History (Basingstoke, 1996).
Webster, From Paracelsus to Newton, ch. 2; Breger, ‘Elias Artista’; Piyo M. Rattansi, ‘Paracelsus and Protestant Millenarianism in 16th-17th Century England’, in Atti del convegno internazionale su Paracelso: Un esame critico del pensiero de Paracelso collocato nella sua dimensione storica ([Rome, e. 1994]), pp. 119–33;
Siegfried Wollgast, ‘Chiliasmus und Soziale Utopie im Paracelsismus’, in Peter Dilg and Hartmut Rudolph (eds.), Neue Breiträge zur Paracelsus-Forschung (Stuttgart, 1995), pp. 111–40; the contributions of Betty Jo Teeter Dobbs and Klaus Vondung to Stephen A. McKnight (ed.), Science, Pseudo-Science, and Utopianism in Early Modern Thought (Columbia MO and London, 1982), pp. 55–87, 118–40;
Carlos Gilly, ‘Theophrastia sancta: Der Paracelsimus als Religion im Streit mit den offiziellen Kirchen’, in Joachim Teile (ed.), Analecta Paracelsica. Studien zum Nachleben Theophrast von Hohenheims im deutschen Kulturgebiet der frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1994), pp. 425–88; English version in Ole Peter Grell (ed.), Paracelsus: the Man and his Reputation, his Ideas and their Transformation (Leiden, 1998), pp. 151 – 85.
Paulo Rossi, Francesco Bacone: dalla magia alla scienze (Bari, 1957); English trans, by Sacha Rabinovitch, Francis Bacon: from Magic to Science (London, 1968), ch. 1. Cf. Webster, Great Instauration, pt. V.
DJAK xiv. 278–385; xv/2. 12–53. Cf. G. H. Turnbull, Hartlib, Dury and Comenius: Gleanings from Hartlib’s Papers (London, 1947), p. 443; Webster, Great Instauration, pp. 25–7, 100–15. Uwe Voigt suggestively presents the Geschichtsverständnis des Comenius as the result of a synthesis, not only of Augustinian and millenarian conceptions of history, but also of Baconian and ‘Rosicrucian’ conceptions of learning.
More scholarly studies include Ernest Sandeen, The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism 1800–1930 (Chicago, 1970);
Timothy P. Weber, Living in the Shadow of the Second Coming: American Premillennialism, 1875–1982 (Chicago, 1979; 2nd ed. 1987);
Stephan Holthaus, Fundamentalismus in Deutschland. Der Kampf um die Bibel im Protestantismus des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Bonn, 1993), pp. 373–451.
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Hotson, H. (2000). Conclusions. In: Paradise Postponed. Archives Internationales D’histoire des Idées / International Archives of the History of Ideas, vol 172. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9494-3_7
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