Abstract
In Chapter 3 I offered several propositions concerning how a breakthrough for DC interests in the CBD can be possible. Evidence was found that strengthened the propositions that institutional factors have facilitated the emergence of agreement between the interests of developed and developing countries. Thus, the CBD output coincides with DC interests to a greater extent than the “terms of trade” prior to its conclusion, and DCs have had a real breakthrough for their interests in the international output. Against this background I made the proposition that DCs are more likely to implement their obligations under the regime. The H0 is that domestic (biodiversity) policies in DCs would not have been different in the absence of the international environmental agreement.
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References
Area Handbook for Ethiopia, Foreign Area Studies, The American University, Washington DC, 1971.
Religious discord is still a source of domestic tension. It also played a role in the Eritrean struggle to separate from Ethiopia (which was achieved in 1991). By a UN resolution Eritrea, a former Italian colony, was federated to Ethiopia in 1952.
The Derg is the Amharic word for the military committee which succeeded in dethroning Haile Selassie.
The Economist (1994) “Voting, of a sort”, 4 June, p. 50.
See also A. Lijphart (1969) “Typologies of Democratic Systems”, in A. Lijphart (ed) Politics in Europe (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall ).
Region I - Tigray, Region 2 - Afar, Region 3 - Amhara, Region 4 - Oromia, Region 5 - Somali, Region 6 - Benshangul, Region 7, 8, 9, 10 & 11 - Southern Ethiopian Region, Region 12 - Gambella, Region 13 - Harar, Region 14 - Addis Ababa.
The Economist (1994) “Voting, of a sort”, 4 June, p. 50.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1991) “Biodiversity Guide to Ethiopia ”, Cambridge.
Feasibility study for a wildlife conservation project in Southern Ethiopia, figure 1, p. 10, Final Report, Agroconsulting, Italy, an EU assistance project (UNDP, 1993 ).
Reference in Hillman (1993): PC Globe, 1992; Woodford, J.D. 1990, “The Status of Wildlife in Ethiopia, its Conservation and Utilisation”, Addis Ababa, 77 pp.
In Ethiopian Birr, approx. the same as NOK.
Per Ole Syvertsen, Biology Institute, University of Oslo, personal communication, March 1996.
Transitional Government of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 41/1993, Negarit Gazeta No. 26, Addis Ababa.
The Transnational Government of Ethiopia, National Policy and Strategy for Plant Genetic Resources Conservation and Development, September, 1993, Addis Ababa.
Nevertheless, several farmers doubt whether the new, improved varieties will adapt to local environments. Setbacks have already occurred due to el Nino, with great losses for farmers who can ill afford the increased price of fertilisers as it is. Interview with n3 (see Appendix 1).
IPGRI was previously known as the IBPGR: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, located with FAO, Rome. In the IBPGR Report from the 14th Meeting of the Board of Trustees, Rome, 25–27 February 1987, the Ethiopian Genebank is given the following evaluation: “The PGRC meets nearly all the IBPGR standards. Minor recommendations have already been suggested to this gene-bank and most will have already been implemented by the PGRC”.
UNDP, Project Document, ETH/93/G31.
Report to FAO, ICPPGR - International Conference and Programme for Plant Genetic Resources, “Country Report for Ethiopia”.
Ethiopia, National Report on Environment and Development, A Report prepared for the UNCED, Rio de Janeiro; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, January, 1992.
op.cit., p. 6.
op.cit., p. 104.
This awareness about the value of plant genetic resources is apparent in the Ethiopian National Report to UNCED, where the South’s position on the biodiversity issue is clearly spelled out.This is not surprising, as Dr. Tewolde Egziabher is one of the most central entrepreneurs, both in the international negotiations and in policy-making at the national level in Ethiopia. I shall return to Dr. Tewolde’s role in subsequent sections.
A factor which may, however, have a detrimental effect on policy enforcement within this field is the uncertainty surrounding the land tenure issue.
The presentation in this section is based partly on my own reading of the five NCS documents and partly on interviews with central actors in the NCS legislation process. As some of the interviewees expressed the wish not to be quoted directly, I refer to the codes in the confidential list of interviewees (see Appendix 1).
Interviews with several high-ranking EPA staff (C7, C8), February 1996.
Several interviewees also pointed to the tendencies of overlap in the multilateral donor community: This includes the NCS processes as advocated by the IUCN, and the Agenda 21 and NEAP (national environmental action policy) as pushed by the UNDP and the World Bank respectively. A general sentiment was that these are but different labels for the same policies and it diverts a lot of attention from the content of the legislation process.
Interviews with N4 and C4, February 1996 (App. 1).
That is, holding M.Sc., B.Sc. or Ph.D. degrees.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Environmental Protection Authority (EPA). Draft: Project Proposal submitted to NORAD on capacity building and implementation of selected projects. Addis Ababa, May, 1997.
Interview: n4, 13 February 1996 (see Appendix 1).
According to NORAD, project approval is now in the pipeline. The project will eventually include NOK 18 million over three years, and focus on capacity building in EPA. (personal communication from nl, 18 May 1998 (see Appendix 1).
Interview: 18 May 1998. (Appendix 1: n 1).
Interview: 18 May 1998. (Appendix 1: n 2).
Chapter 2 describes the NCS process, the input from regions and the sectors involved, as well as cross-sector issues. Chapter 3 provides a broad outline of the natural resources base.
Another six principles address the manner in which local communities may be defined and how local people may be included in the management and planning processes.
In addition to Volume V, the tables can found in Appendix 2 in the dissertation version of this book: G. Kristin Rosendal (1999) “Implementing International Environmental Agreements in Developing Countries: The Creation and Impact of the Convention on Biological Diversity” (Oslo: Unipub, Oslo University).
As there is not much export of wildlife and limited scope for tourism in the parks and reserves of Ethiopia, the CBD may have little direct impact on access to genetic resources. In this section I will thus omit one of the evaluation standards, as the one referring to legislation controlling access to genetic resources is hardly relevant in this area.
Table 8.3.2 in NCS Volume V.
The role of the Peasant Associations is potentially important in pgr conservation and development. A major uncertainty now concerns the land tenure system; the outcome here will be of great importance for what will happen to local community rights. The Transitional Government left this point to be handled by its successor, since the political aspect of this issue so “hot”.
Under the previous government there were examples of Pioneer Hi-bred (a multinational pharmaceutical company) doing corrupt deals with high-ranking politicians in order to gain access to genetic material. Pioneer Hi-bred knew, however, that they could not get access through the Genebank.
Interview: March 1996 (App.1, C3).
Interview: March 1996. (App.I, C3) This respondent believes that such corruption will not happen under the new government: “People in the Council of Ministers are directly involved in the seeds issue and they are interested in promoting it”. (Ethiopian Genebank).
Interview: March 1996 (App. 1, N4 ). ( University ).
The other indicator is “participative capacity”, operationalised as participation in general elections, in national environmental polices, and in long-term ecological planning. This factor was primarily dealt with in section 8.3 on the legislation process.
If so, HO is strengthened; if not, there will be added reason to examine how institutional factors have influenced domestic implementation in Ethiopia.
Interview: March 1996 (Appendix 1, C3).
Interview with leader from NGO sector, February 1996 (App.1, N1).
As stressed by one interviewee, the formulation and enforcement of environmental policies may be difficult because ethnicity has now become more important than professionalism. Interview: Ni, February 1996. During my interviews in 1996, Ni was not at all familiar with the NCS process.
Interview with leader from NGO sector, February 1996. (App.1, N3).
These sentiments were clear both with N3 and Ni. Interviews February 1996.
Interview: February 1996 (N1).
Care International in Ethiopia, project proposal, February 1994.
Feasibility Study for a Wildlife Conservation Project in Southern Ethiopia“, Final Report, Agriconsulting SpA, Rome, 15th June 1993.
Development of a trust fund for conservation in Ethiopia, Consolidated report on Second Phase Mission by WWF and National Consultants, 1 August 1995.
Forest Conservation in High Priority Areas of Ethiopia, 1996–2000, Draft.
White Paper: National Policy and Strategy for Plant Genetic Resources Conservation and Development, the Transitional Government of Ethiopia, September 1993, Addis Ababa.
USC/SoS Management Plan document.
In this work, as well as in the organisation of workshops, the USC is aided by Rural Advancement Fund International (RAFI), an NGO with long-standing experience in the seeds issue (USC/SoS Management Plan document).
GEF is expected to cover the conservation portion by financing the establishment of the local community gene banks, the USC/SoS will cover utilisation (including training of farmers and documenting their knowledge), and the Ethiopian Genebank will guide and direct in the enhancement of land races. There is also an institution-building component and an information distribution component - the African Diversity Newsletter. According to sources at the Genebank, a “hidden priority” in the new programme is to ensure conservation also in the good areas. Previous efforts have been concentrated on the drought and problem-affected areas, but it is equally important to focus on the areas with potential for future development — herein lies the future of Ethiopian agriculture.
The programme was expected to start in June 1994; but it is yet to be listed in the GEF project portfolio. Repeated efforts to establish the status of the project with GEF staff have not been successful so far. The project is now proceeding with UNDP/GEF funding (“A Dynamic farmer-based approach to the conservation of African Plant Genetic Resources”) and the SoS has been expelled from both the project and Ethiopia. (Interview: n3, June 1998, Appendix 1)
Interview: March 1996 (C3).
Table 8.3.2, component 2.14 in the NCS Volume V.
Interview: C3, March 1996: “World Bank involvement would only be helping the donors, and they do not have the right to interfere.”
It should be noted that the rationale for this policy is not necessarily a rejection of the ideal of local participation. Rather it may be built on the fear that Federated Ethiopia may split up into conflicting regions. Nevertheless, it is a decision that goes against the efforts of Ethiopian policy-makers to solve their internal affairs themselves.
Ethiopia would in that case, together with Turkey, represent the only countries to receive GEF money for conservation of domesticated species of plants.
As my investigation for this study ended prior to the Ethiopian-Eritrean war, I shall refrain from further comments on this.
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Rosendal, G.K. (2000). Biodiversity Policies in Ethiopia. In: The Convention on Biological Diversity and Developing Countries. Environment & Policy, vol 25. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9421-9_8
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