Abstract
With these words, the British chemist Raphael Meldola, in his 1886 lecture before the Society of Arts in London, commenced a review of the influence of the German dye industry on industrial progress. That influence was hardly more tellingly invoked than by its impact on British chemists, particularly those with industrial experience, such as Meldola, who invented an important colorant, Meldola’s blue, similar to Caro’s methylene blue, when employed at Brooke, Simpson & Spiller of London. Meldola and others were not slow in recognising the weaknesses of the British dye-making firms, whose decline had started in the mid-1860s, around the time when Caro and other Germans returned to their homeland. It was a few years later, in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870–71, that German hegemony in dye manufacture became anchored in mastery of aromatic organic chemistry to an extent that was not to be achieved elsewhere. This at first took place through academic-industrial research alliances of the sort exemplified by the alizarin work of Caro, Graebe, and Liebermann during 1869–70, and formalised by Caro and Baeyer from 1874. The endeavour was soon woven into the fabric of factory life by the assignment of chemists to laboratories that were increasingly given over to research and development tasks.
I think it is desirable to make an attempt to show the inner mechanism by which chemical science has been and is being so successfully adjusted to commercial wants by our continental neighbours.
Raphael Meldola, 1886. 1
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References
Raphael Meldola, “The Scientific Development of the Coal-Tar Colour Industry,” under “Abstracts from English and Foreign Journals. V. Coal-Tar Colours,” Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 2 (1886): 95–101, on 97.
Meldola, “The Scientific Development,” 96.
John J. Beer, “Coal Tar Dye Manufacture and the Origins of the Modern Industrial Research Laboratory,” Isis 49 (1958): 123–31;
Georg Meyer-Thurow, “The Industrialization of Invention: A Case Study from the German Chemical Industry,” Isis 73 (1982): 363–81;
Ernst Homburg, “The Emergence of Research Laboratories in the Dyestuffs Industry, 1870–1900,” British Journal for the History of Science 25 (1992): 91–111;
Ulrich Marsch, “Strategies for Success: Research Organizations in German Chemical Companies and I.G. Farben Until 1936,” History and Technology 12 (1995): 23–77;
and Carsten Reinhardt, “Basic Research in Industry: Two Case Studies at I. G. Farbenindustrie AG in the 1920s and 1930s,” in Determinants in the Evolution of the European Chemical Industry. 1900–1939. New Technologies, Political Frameworks, Markets and Companies, eds. Anthony S. Travis, Harm G. Schröter, Ernst Homburg, and Peter J. T. Morris (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1998), 67–88. Note that Marsch and Reinhardt extend the story up to the era of I. G. Farben.
“Technische Erläuterungen,” in “Beschreibung der geplanten Anlage für die Anilin-und Teerfarbenfabrikation,” 27 June 1866, BASF Archives, document vol. 28.
Curt Schuster, Vom Farbenhandel zur Farbenindustrie. Die erste Fusion der BASF. (Ludwigshafen: BASF, 1973), 52–70.
Carsten Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie. Die Entwicklung synthetischer Farbstoffe bei BASF und Hoechst. 1863 bis 1914 (Freiberg: Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, 1997), 61–62, and references therein.
Contract between BASF (Rudolph Knosp, as president of the supervisory board) and Caro, 21 May 1874, bound with “Erinnerungen an Heinrich Caro,” (hereafter “Erinnerungen”), vol. 2, DM NL 93/10, transcribed in Evelyn Wiedenmann, “Die Konstruktion der richtigen Formel. Strukturaufklärung und Synthese des Indigblau, dargestellt an Hand des Briefwechsels Baeyer-Caro,” 2 vols. (Ph.D. diss., Technical University of Munich, 1978), vol. 2, 294.
Graebe to Liebermann, 2 April 1874, DM HS 1933/81/6/4, in Elisabeth Vaupel, “Carl Graebe (1841–1927) — Leben, Werk und Wirken im Spiegel seines brieflichen Nachlasses,” 2 vols. (Ph.D. diss., University of Munich, 1987), vol. 2, 218–20.
Supplement to the contract of 21 May 1874 between BASF and Caro, 12 October 1874, “Erinnerungen,” vol. 2, DM NL93/10, in Wiedenmann, “Die Konstruktion der richtigen Formel,” vol. 2, 295.
Victor Meyer to Caro, 21 and 28 December 1875, DM HS 1469 and 1470; 5 and 10 February 1876, DM HS 1471/2 and 1471/3; Hugo Müller to Caro, 21 January 1876 DM HS 1471 / 1; and Wilhelm Weith to Caro, 3 March 1877, DM NL93/08.
August Bernthsen, “Heinrich Caro,” Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 45 (1912): 1987–2042, on 2018, note 4.
Nickels to Caro, 22 September 1879, and 4 November 1879 (with attachments), DM NL93. See also Anthony S. Travis, “Colour Makers and Consumers: Heinrich Caro’s British Network,” Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 108 (1992): 311–16, on 315.
“Die Interpretation Ihrer Pflichten, welche Sie gegen das Geschäft der B. Anilin Sodafabrik zu erfüllen haben bleibt diejenige des bisherigen Vertrags und Nachtrags vom 12. October 1874. Alle Erfindungen, welche Sie während der Vertragsdauer machen und alle dafür genommenen Patente gehen sofort in den Besitz des Geschäfts über und sind von Ihnen zu diesem Zwecke [?] an dasselbe zu cediren. Zur Präcisierung Ihrer Stellung bemerke ich folgendes: Sie haben das Recht von allen geschäfthlichen Verhältnissen der B. Anilin Sodafabrik Einsicht zu nehmen; Sie haben die Pflicht, den rein chemischen Theil bis in die Details zu verfolgen und besonders in dieser Richtung zum Gedeihen des Geschäftes das Ihrige beizutragen.” Supplement to contract between the supervisory board of BASF and Heinrich Caro (signed by Rudolph Knosp and Heinrich Caro), 6 February 1878, BASF Archives, C 627/1.
However, there is no indication that this happenend at the end of 1877, as Ernst Homburg suggests in his “The Emergence of Research Laboratories,” 99. See also Griess to Caro, 18 November 1877, DM HS 1894; and Curt Schuster, Wissenschaft und Technik. Ihre Begegnung in der BASF während der ersten Jahrzehnte der Unternehmensgeschichte (Ludwigshafen: BASF, 1976), 85–87.
Salary lists (Salairkonto), 1873 to 1899, BASF Archives, C 652/1.
“Notes relating to Brooke, Simpson and Spiller’s 1876 Price List,” by H.W. Wilkinson, Zeneca Archives, DH 1732. Wilkinson was chief dyer at the firm from 1903 to 1905.
For the number of workers, see the statistical summary compiled in 1915, BASF Archives; for the chemists at BASF see statistical summary compiled in 1964, BASF Archives, C 623/3; for the number of chemists at the central research laboratory see salary lists, BASF Archives, C 652/1. Included in the latter are those chemists who were employed at the end of each year, the head of the laboratory, and the two non-academic members of the laboratory, Holdmann and Feez.
Homburg, “The Emergence of Research Laboratories,” 93–94, 99.
See notebook “Chemiker der BASF”, no. 11; and notebook of Eugen Mentha (hereafter “Mentha”), no. 9, both BASF Archives, C 623, and salary lists, BASF Archives, C 652/1. The notebook “Chemiker der BASF” gives autumn 1873 as the beginning of Wienand’s employment, and spring 1874 as the end. Because the salary lists were continuously updated, and were related to a book-keeping function, we regard their information as reliable.
“Chemiker der BASF,” no. 14.
Contract of Köhler with BASF, 18 April 1878, BASF Archives, C 627/2.
Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie, 95.
“Chemiker der BASF,” no. 20, “Mentha,” no. 19, and salary lists. See also contracts of Burghard with BASF, 1 January 1878, 18 May 1883, and biographical notes in BASF Archives, W 1 Burghard.
“Chemiker der BASF,” no. 24; “Mentha,” no. 5; salary lists; Manuela Wex, “Edmund ter Meer,” in Neue Deutsche Biographie, ed. Historische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (1954–97), 18 vols., vol. 16 (1990), 605–06.
“Wie ich sehe, brauchen Sie einen jungen Chemiker, der gut, zuverlässig und sauber organisch arbeitet und dabei fügsam und gerne bereit ist, unter Ihrer Leitung und auf Ihre Anweisung zu arbeiten.” Victor Meyer to Caro, 13 March 1875, DM HS 1466.
Biographical note, dated December 1958; Statement regarding the discovery of the conversion of naphthols into amino-derivatives, 8 January 1887, both BASF Archives, W 1 Holdmann; laboratory notebooks of Holdmann, BASF Archives.
“Waaren-, Betriebs- und Fabrikationskonto,” BASF Archives, T 01. There is no indication of the purposes to which these sums were put.
This approximation is based on several dyestuff production lists and research reports held in BASF Archives, I 01/2, I 005/2, I 12/A3; Gustav Schultz, Farbstofftabellen (Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 7th. ed., 1931) 2 vols.;
and Paul Friedlaender, Fortschritte der Theerfarbenfabrikation und verwandter Industriezweige (Berlin: Springer, 1888).
Sources are “Chemiker der BASF” and “Mentha,” both BASF Archives C 623; salary list BASF Archives, C 652/1. Paul Friedlaender and Albert Hehner were assistants of Adolf Baeyer in Ludwigshafen, and Hehner was later employed by BASF. For general biographical information see Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie.
Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie, 91–92, 228–36, 359, passim.
Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie, 282–84, 343–44, passim.
“Ich habe mein eigenes kleines, aber nettes Laboratorium und mit dem Fabrikbetrieb sonst nichts zu thun, vielmehr soll ich hier dasselbe Amt bekleiden, welches Sie in Ludwigshafen haben; das eines Erfinders!” Nietzki to Caro, 24 January 1879, DM NL93/6.
This approximation is based on several dyestuff production lists and research reports held in BASF Archives, I 01/2, I 005/2, I 12/A3; Schultz, Farbstofftabellen; and Friedlaender, Fortschritte der Theerfarbenfabrikation.
Organisational statutes of BASF, 31 December 1883, § 12, BASF Archives, C 10.
Carsten Reinhardt, “Vom Alizarinblau zum Thallin, Pharmazeutisch-chemische Forschung der BASF in den achtziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts,” in Brückenschläge. 25 Jahre Lehrstuhl für Geschichte der exakten Wissenschaften und der Technik an der Technischen Universität Berlin. 1969–1994, eds. Hans-Werner Schütt and Burghard Weiss (Berlin: Engel, 1995), 253–76.
“Von Ihrem liebenswürdigen Anerbieten vom vergangenen Sommer, mir beim Eintritt in die Technik behülflich sein zu wollen, Gebrauch machend, theile ich Ihnen mit, dass ich mich jetzt entschlossen habe, zu versuchen, ob ich in der Technik zu brauchen bin. Sie wissen, so gut wie ich, dass jetzt allmählich die Alkaloidfrage technisch zu werden beginnt und darin hoffe ich unter Umständen etwas leisten zu können. Wenigstens kenne ich das Gebiet gut.” Eduard von Gerichten to Caro, 4 December 1882, DM HS 1977/32/115/1.
Siegle to Caro, 25 December 1882, DM NL93/8.
Eduard von Gerichten to Caro, 5. January 1883, DM HS 1977/32/115/2. See also Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie, 262–68.
Hermann Ost (1852–1931) studied chemistry at Göttingen and Leipzig, and received his Ph.D. in 1875. He received the venia legendi in 1879, and in 1884 became professor of organic and analytical chemistry at Hanover Polytechnic, where in 1887 he accepted the chair of technical chemistry.
Ost to Caro, 6 January [1884] and 13 January 1884, DM NL93/6.
Ost to Caro, 10 December 1884, DM NL93/6.
Caro to Ost, 11 December 1884, DM HS 6786.
Ost to Caro, 18 February 1885, DM NL93/6.
Emil Fischer to Caro, 28 May 1883, in Schuster, Wissenschaft und Technik, 99–103 (a facsimile of the letter is shown on 100–03); Emil Fischer, Aus meinem Leben (Berlin: Springer, 1922, reprinted 1987), 98–99; Siegle to Caro, Stuttgart 27 May 1883, DM NL93/8.
Fischer, Aus meinem Leben, 98–99.
Fischer, Aus meinem Leben, 98–99; Victor Meyer to Baeyer, 5 September and 30 October 1883, partially transcribed in Schuster, Wissenschaft und Technik, 98–106. See also Victor Meyer to Caro, 28 October 1883, DM HS 1494.
Caro to Engler, 4 December 1884, Geißler transcript, fol. 76; Brunck and Hanser to Caro, 23 January 1885, BASF Archives, C 10, correspondence between management of BASF and Caro.
Schuster, Wissenschaft und Technik, 93–94.
Memorandum from Glaser and Hanser to Caro, 1 September 1884; Richard Meyer to Caro, 6 September and 9 October 1884, DM NL93/6. For Richard Meyer’s later work as a consultant for Hoechst see Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie, 270–72.
“Zu meinem größten Bedauern vernahm ich heute Ihre definitive Ablehnung der Ihnen angetragenen Stellung in unserem Geschäft. Ich hatte gehofft, an Ihnen einen treuen Collegen und Mitarbeiter zu gewinnen, und mit Ihnen gemeinsam die großen und schönen Aufgaben der Farbenpraxis zur Lösung zu führen. Natürlich kann ich jetzt nichts mehr an Ihren Entschlüßen ändern, und fürchte ich, daß Sie die Schwierigkeiten und Schattenseiten des praktischen Berufes mehr in das Auge gefaßt haben, als seine hohe Bedeutung und seine unvergleichlichen Vorzüge vor dem Lehrfach.” Caro to O. Fischer, 4 February 1884, Geißler transcript, fol. 38–39.
Richard Anschütz and Carl Müller, “Zu Carl Glasers 85. Geburtstag,” Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 40 (1927): 273–81, on 280.
Caro to Knosp, 27 October 1884, Geißler transcript, fol. 67–68. See contract between BASF and Caro, 23 May 1885 and Knosp to Caro, 23 May 1885, DM NL93/10/2, also in Wiedenmann, “Die Konstruktion der richtigen Formel,” vol. 2, 296 f., and summary of negotiations over 1885 contract with Caro, BASF Archives, C 627/1.
Caro to BASF management, 24 November 1885, Geißler transcript, fol. 182–85.
Caro to BASF management, 24 November 1885, Geißler transcript, fol. 182–85, on fol. 183.
Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie, 357.
Contract between BASF and A. Bernthsen, 21 July 1887, BASF Archives, W 1 Bernthsen. See R. Spagl, “Heinrich August Bernthsen,” Neue Deutsche Biographie (1954), vol. 2, 143;
Ruth Anne Gienapp, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, s.v. Heinrich August Bernthsen; Karl Holdermann, “August Bernthsen zum Gedächtnis,” Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 45 (1932), 141–43;
Paul Julius, “Zu August Bernthsens 70. Geburtstag,” Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 38 (1925), 737–39;
August Bernthsen, 50 Jahre Tätigkeit in chemischer Wissenschaft und Industrie. Einige Lebenserinnerungen (Heidelberg, 1925).
Caro to BASF management, 6 July 1887, Geißler transcript, fol. 325.
Bernthsen, 50 Jahre, 35–36.
Bernthsen, 50 Jahre, 37.
Bernthsen, 50 Jahre, 39.
See Caro to BASF management, June 1885, Geißler transcript, fol. 114.
Paul Julius, “Zu August Bernthsens 70. Geburtstag,” 738.
“Ich würde also der Leiter der wissenschaftlich-chemischen Abtheilung des Hauptlaboratoriums werden und meine Instructionen von der Direction empfangen. Ich würde die von letzterer mir überwiesenen Themata, welche sich auf die Schaffung neuer oder auf die Verbesserung bestehender Fabrikationszweige beziehen, durcharbeiten zu lassen haben, die wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen der Betriebslaboratorien auf Verlangen mit Rath und That zu fördern, die Arbeiten der Abtheilung für Patentwesen nach Maßgabe der Direction durch gutachtliche Äußerungen zu unterstützen, und mich aus eigener Initiative mit der Ermittelung neuer Fabrikationszweige und -methoden auf Grund der wissenschaftlichen und technischen Literatur zu befassen haben.” Bernthsen to BASF management, 14 July 1887, BASF Archives, WI Bernthsen.
Arthur G. Green, “The Reinstatement of the Dyestuff Industry in England,” in “Science and Industry. The Organic Chemical Industry in England,” supplement to Manchester Guardian, 30 June 1917, 16.
For biographical details see Reinhardt, Forschung in der chemischen Industrie, 337, 343.
Karl Holdermann, “Die Patentabteilung der BASF,” unpublished typescript, BASF Archives; Karl Holdermann, “Der Bau C 13 im Wandel der Zeiten,” BASF Nachrichten 6 (1955): 14.
Bernthsen, 50 Jahre, 37.
An example is the naphthol yellow patent. See Caro to Otto N. Witt, 20 February 1886, Geißler transcript, fol. 203–06.
BASF, DRP no. 1,886, 15 December 1877, “Verfahren zur Darstellung blauer Farbstoffe aus Dimethylanilin und anderen tertiären aromatischen Monaminen,” in Paul Friedlaender, Fortschritte der Theerfarbenfabrikation und verwandter Industriezweige, 11 vols. (Berlin: Springer, 1888–1915), vol. 1, 247–49, see also 243–46.
Bernthsen, “Caro,” 2011.
Caro to Meldola, 8 June 1886, Newham, bound volume of correspondence, 33. See also Geißler transcript, fol. 86a.
Caro to Bösler, 9 February 1884, Geißler transcript, fol. 43–44. See also K. Oehler, DRP no. 24,125, 4 February 1882, “Verfahren zur Darstellung blauer schwefelhaltiger Farbstoffe,” in Friedlaender, Fortschritte der Theerfarbenfabrikation, vol. 1, 249–50.
Karl Saftien, “Kekulé als Gutachter,” Die BASF 15 (1965): 190–98, on 191–92.
Hoechst received 27 per cent, and Zimmer 18 per cent. The reasons for Zimmer’s involvement are not known. Contract between BASF, Hoechst, and Georg Carl Zimmer (Mannheim), 1 August 1888, Hoechst Archives, “Auswärtige Mitarbeiter,” C/ 1/2/a. For Zimmer see Caro, “Über die Entwicklung der chemischen Industrie in Mannheim-Ludwigshafen a. Rh.,” Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 17 (1904): 1343–62, on 1347.
Bernthsen, “Caro,” 2035–36, note 3.
Caro to BASF management, 29 March 1886, BASF Archives, C 10, correspondence between management of BASF and Caro.
Caro to BASF management, 29 March 1886, BASF Archives, C 10, correspondence between management of BASF and Caro.
Caro to Witt, 20 February 1886, Geißler transcript, fol. 203–06.
Paul A. Zimmermann, Patentwesen in der Chemie. Ursprünge, Anfänge, Entwicklung (Ludwigshafen: BASF, 1965), 44–47;
Arndt Fleischer, Patentgesetzgebung und chemisch-pharmazeutische Industrie im deutschen Kaiserreich. 1871–1918 (Stuttgart: Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, 1984), 142–47.
According to the German patent law, the first person to register a patent was the holder. See the arguments of Caro in BASF memorandum of 17 April 1879, published in Die Chemische Industrie 2 (1879): 146–50, on 148.
Unpatented knowledge was, in all cases, kept secret, and the chemists involved were bound by strict contractual conditions concerning disclosure that extended beyond the end of their periods of engagement. This, however, was often a handicap when it came to cooperation with academic chemists, whose new knowledge was expected to be made public. Generally, academic chemists who collaborated with industry were willing to delay publication, but in some cases this discrepancy between the industrial and academic worlds gave rise to tensions.
Brunck and Glaser to Rudolph Knosp (president of the supervisory board of BASF), 14 October 1889, BASF Archives, “Direkte Korrespondenz der Direktion,” fol. 3–6.
“... welche durch die ihnen obliegende Thätigkeit in unserem Geschäfte von den Patentfragen näher berührt werden.” BASF management circular, 2 January 1890, BASF Archives, E 01/2.15; facsimile in appendix of Zimmermann, Patentwesen in der Chemie.
Brunck and Glaser to Knosp, 15 October 1889, BASF Archives, “Direkte Korrespondenz der Direktion,” fol. 7–8.
Brunck and Glaser to Knosp, 4 January 1890, BASF Archives, “Direkte Korrespondenz der Direktion,” fol. 23–26.
Knosp to Caro, 25 November 1889, in Wiedenmann, “Die Konstruktion der richtigen Formel,” vol. 2, 298–99. See Brunck to Knosp, 11 November 1889, BASF Archives, “Direkte Korrespondenz der Direktion,” fol. 9–12. Caro thought that the sum of 20,000 marks was insufficient as compensation for the requested work. In any case, he had the right to receive 10,000 marks per year during his “Karenzzeit” (the period when he was not allowed to join a rival company). See Knosp to Caro, 23 May 1885, DM NL93/10/2, also in Wiedenmann, “Die Konstruktion der richtigen Formel,” vol. 2, 297. For a further 10,000 marks, Caro would be obliged to establish a laboratory, to write reports, etc. However, though he complained that this sum would not cover the costs, he did undertake the work. See Brunck and Glaser to Knosp, 4 January 1890, BASF Archives, “Direkte Korrespondenz der Direktion,” fol. 23–26.
BASF, DRP no. 81,042, 12 May 1894, “Verfahren zur Darstellung der Rhodaminfarbstoffe mittels Chloralhydrat,” in Friedlaender, Fortschritte der Theerfarbenfabrikation, vol. 4, 177–79.
BASF, DRP no. 105,857, 2 June 1898 (not in Friedlaender); BASF, DRP no. 110,575, 2 June 1898, “Verfahren zur Darstellung von Nitroso- und Nitroverbindungen,” in Friedlaender, Fortschritte der Theerfarbenfabrikation, vol. 5, 45–47. See also Bernthsen, “Caro,” 2038.
Bernthsen to Kekulé, 3 January 1890, TH Darmstadt, Kekulé-papers.
“...die wissenschaftliche Seite des Geschäfts.” Bernthsen to Kekulé, 30 October 1889, TH Darmstadt, Kekulé-papers.
Bernthsen to Kekulé, 30 October 1889, TH Darmstadt, Kekulé-papers.
“. .. meine Person wird insofern mit hinzugezogen, als die meisten Patentsachen vor der Ablieferung an Herrn Dr. Glaser von mir durchgesehen und geprüft werden sollen. Das bedeutet hoffentlich einen lebhafteren Antheil am Pulsschlag des Geschäfts.” Bernthsen to Kekulé, 3 January 1890, TH Darmstadt, Kekulé-papers.
Paul Julius, “Zu August Bernthsens 70. Geburtstag,” Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 38 (1925): 737–39, on 738.
Bernthsen, 50 Jahre, 41–42, 45.
Bernthsen, 50 Jahre, 47, 51.
Arthur G. Green, Manchester Chemistry and Chemists in the Nineties. The Second Ivan Levinstein Memorial Lecture. Manchester Chemical Club, 22 November 1938 (Manchester: Manchester Chemical Club, 1938), 3.
Green, Manchester Chemistry and Chemists, 3. For Clayton Aniline see E. N. Abrahart, The Clayton Aniline Company Limited, 1876–1976. (Manchester: Clayton Aniline Company Ltd, 1976.)
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Reinhardt, C., Travis, A.S. (2000). The Industrial Research Laboratory. In: Heinrich Caro and the Creation of Modern Chemical Industry. Chemists and Chemistry, vol 19. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9353-3_8
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