Abstract
In recent years, systemic mycoses have become a prominent cause of disease particularly in severely ill and immunocompromised patients. The factors contributing to the increased prevalence of fungal infections are related to larger number of patients with underlying immunosuppression, due to factors such as the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), more aggressive cancer chemotherapy, increase in transplantation operations, greater number of other immunocompromised patients, and new and more prosthetic devices [1]. There have been a number of recent surveys which give some illustration about this problem. The Center for Disease Control reported that among 51 USA hospitals, candidiasis was the eighth most common infection, accounting for 5% of the isolates [2]. This value can be considerably higher in certain specific patient groups. The National Cancer Institute estimated that 43% of patients dying with acute leukemia had systemic fungal infection at autopsy [3].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Denning DW. Epidemiology and pathogenesis of systemic fungal infections in the inmunocompromised host. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28 (suppl B): 1–16.
Horan TC, White JW, Jarvis WR, Emori TG, Culver DH, Munn VP, Thornsberry C, Olson DR, Hughes JM. Nosocomial infection surveillance, 1984. MMWR Surveill Summ 1986; 35: 17SS–29SS.
Bodey GR Fungal infections complicating acute leukemia. J Chronic Dis 1966; 19: 667–87.
Hay RJ. Overview of the treatment of disseminated fungal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28 (suppl B): 17–25.
Gallis HA, Drew RH, Pickard WW. Amphotericin B: 30 years of clinical experience. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12(2): 308–29.
Warnock DW. Amphotericin B: an introduction. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28 (suppl B): 27–38.
Brajtburg J, Powderly WG, Kobayashi GS, Medoff G. Amphotericin B: current understanding of mechanisms of action. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990; 34 (2): 183–8.
Brajtburg J, Elberg S, Schwartz DR, Vertut-Croquin A, Schlessinger D, Kobayashi GS, Medoff G. Involvement of oxidative damage in erythrocyte lysis induced by amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985; 27: 172–6.
Sokol-Anderson M, Brajtburg J, Medoff G. Amphotericin B-induced oxidative damage and killing of Candida albicans. J Infect Dis 1986; 154: 76–83.
Sabra R, Branch RA. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Drug Saf 1990; 5(2): 94–108.
Butler WT, Bennett JE, Alling DW, Wertlake PT, Utz JP, Hill GJ. Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B, early and late events in 81 patients. Ann Intern Med 1964; 61: 175–87.
Medoff G, Koyabashi GS. Strategies in the treatment of systemic fungal infections. N Engl J Med 1980; 302: 145–55.
Clements JS, Peacock JE. Amphotericin B revisited: reassessment of toxicity. Am J Med 1990; 88: 22N–27N.
Miller RP, Bates JH. Amphotericin B toxicity: a follow-up report of 53 patients. Ann Intern Med 1969; 71: 1089–95.
Branch RA, Jackson EK, Jacqz E, Stein R, Ray WA, Ohnhaus EE, Meusers P, Heidemann H. Amphotericin-B nephrotoxicity in humans decreased by sodium supplements with coadministration of ticarcillin or intravenous saline. Klin Wochenschr 1987; 65: 500–6.
Winn WA. Coccidiomycosis and amphotericin B. Med Clin North Am 1963; 47: 1131–48.
Littman ML, Horowitz PL, Swadey JG. Coccidiomycosis and its treatment with amphotericin B. Am J Med 1958; 24: 568–92.
Rubin SI, Krawiec DR, Gilbers H, Shanks RD. Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B in dogs: a comparison of two methods of administration. Can J Vet Res 1989; 53: 23–8.
Stein RS, Albridge K, Lenox RK, Ray W, Flexner JM. Nephrotoxicity in leukemic patients receiving empirical amphotericin B and aminoglycosides. South Med J 1988; 81: 1095–1099.
Fisher MA, Talbot GH, Maislin G, McKeon BP, Tynan KP, Strom BL. Risk factors for amphotericin B-associ-ated nephrotoxicity. Am J Med 1989; 87: 547–52.
Holeman CW, Einstein H. The toxic effects of amphotericin B in man. Calif Med 1963; 99: 90–3.
Bullock WE, Luke RG, Nuttal CE, Bhathena D. Can mannitol reduce amphotericin B nephrotoxicity? Double blind study and description of a new vascular lesion in kidneys. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1976; 10: 555–63.
Barbour GL, Straub KD, O’Neal BL, Leatherman JW Vasopressin-resistant diabetes insipidus, a result of amphotericin B therapy. Arch Intern Med 1979; 139: 86–8.
Rose BD. Hypokalemia. In: Rose BD editor. Clinical Physiology of Acid-Base and Electrolyte Disorders. McGraw Hill, Inc. 1989: 715–56.
Burgess JL, Birchall R. Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B with emphasis on changes in tubular function. Am J Med 1972; 53: 77–84.
Llanos A, Cieza J, Bernardo J, EchevarrÃa J, Biaggioni I, Sabra R, Branch RA. Effect of salt supplementation on amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int 1991; 40: 302–8.
Sellin JH, De Soigne R. Ion transport in human colon in vitro. Gastroenterology 1987; 93: 441–8.
Barton CH, Pahl M, Vaziri ND, Cesario T. Renal magnesium wasting associated with amphotericin B therapy. Am J Med 1984; 77: 471–4.
Douglas JB, Healy JK. Nephrotoxic effects of amphotericin B, including renal tubular acidosis. Am J Med 1969; 46: 154–62.
Steinmetz PR, Lawson LR. Defect in urinary acidification induced in vitro by amphotericin B. J Clin Invest 1970; 49: 596–601.
Gil FZ, Malnic G. Effect of amphotericin B on renal tubular acidification in the rat. Pflugers Arch 1989; 413: 280–6.
Gouge TH, Andreoli VT. An experimental model of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity with renal tubular acidosis. J Lab Clin Med 1971; 78: 713–24.
McCurdy DK, Frederic M, Elkinton JR. Renal tubular acidosis due to amphotericin B. Clin Res 1964; 12: 471.
Takacs FJ, Tomkiewicz ZM, Merrill JP. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity with irreversible renal failure. Ann Intern Med 1963; 59: 716–24.
Porter GA. Extrapolation of animal data to man: the concordance between toxicity screening and clinical consequence. In: Bach PH, Lock EA, editors. Nephrotoxicity in the experimental and clinical situation Part 2. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1987: 613–41.
Gruda I, Nadeau P, Brajtburg, Medoff G. Application of different spectra in the UV-visible region to study the formation of amphotericin B complexes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1980; 602: 260–8.
Vertut-Croquin A, Bolard J, Chabert M, Gary-Bobo C. Differences in the interaction of the polyene antibiotic amphotericin B with cholesterol-or ergosterol-contain-ing phospholipid vesicles. A circular dichroism and permeability study. Biochemistry 1983; 22: 2939–44.
Caltrider PG, Gottlieb D. Capacidin: a new member of the polyene antibiotic group. Antibiot Chemother 1961; 10:702–8.
Kinsky SC. The effect of polyene antibiotics on permeability in Neurospora crassa. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1961; 4: 353–7.
Kinsky SC. Alterations in the permeability of Neurospora crassa due to polyene antibiotics. J Bacteriol 1961; 82: 889–97.
Marini FP, Arnow P, Lampen JO. The effect of monovalent cations on the inhibition of yeast metabolism by nystatin. J Gen Microbiol 1961; 24: 51–62.
Sutton DD, Arnow PM, Lampen JO. Effect of high concentrations of nystatin upon glycolysis and cellular permeability in yeast. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1961; 108: 170–5.
Gottlieb D, Carter HE, Sloneker JH, Amman A. Protection of fungi against polyene antibiotics by sterols. Science 1958; 128: 361.
Kotler-Brajtburg J, Price HD, Medoff G, Schlessinger D, Kobayashi GS. Molecular basis for the selective toxicity of amphotericin B for yeast and filipin for animal cells. Antibiotic Agents Chemother 1974; 5: 377–82.
Andreoli TE. On the anatomy of amphotericin B-cholesterol pores in lipid bilayer membranes. Kidney Int 1973; 4: 337–45.
DeKruijiff B, Demel RA. Polyene antibiotic-sterol interactions in membranes of Acholeplesma laidlawii cells and lecithin liposomes. III. Molecular structure of the polyene antibiotic-cholesterol complexes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1974; 339: 57–70.
Holz RW. The effects of the polyene antibiotics nystatin and amphotericin B on thin lipid membranes. Ann NY Acad Sci 1974; 235: 469–79.
Gatzy JT, Reuss L, Finn AL. Amphotericin B and K+ transport across excised toad urinary bladder. Am J Physiol 1979; 237: F145–56.
Lichtenstein NS, Leaf A. Effect of amphotericin B on the permeability of the toad bladder. J Clin Invest 1965; 44: 1328–42.
Lichtenstein NS, Leaf A. Evidence for a double series permeability barrier at the mucosal surface of the toad bladder. Ann NY Acad Sci 1966; 137: 556–65.
Butler WT, Alling DW, Cotlove E. Potassium loss from human erythrocytes exposed to amphotericin B. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1965; 118: 297–300.
Teerlink T, DeKruijiff B, Demel RA. The action of piramicin, etruscomycin, and amphotericin B on liposomes with varying sterol content. Biochim Biophys Acta 1980; 599: 484–92.
Kinsky SC. Comparative responses of mammalian erythrocytes and microbial protoplast to polyene antibiotics and vitamin A. Arch Biochem Biophys 1963; 102: 180–8.
Kinsky SC, Avruch J, Permutt M, Rogers HB, Schonder AA. The lytic effects of polyene fungal antibiotics on mammalian erythrocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1962; 9: 503–7.
Finn JT, Cohen LH, Steinmetz PR. Acidifying defect induced by amphotericin B: comparison of bicarbonate and hydrogen ion permeabilities. Kidney Int 1977; 11: 261–6.
Capasso G, Schuetz H, Vickermann B, Kinne R. Amphotericin B and amphotericin B methylester: effect on brush border membrane permeability. Kidney Int 1986; 30: 311–7.
Schell RE, Tran NV, Bramhall JS. Amphotericin B-induced changes in membrane permeation: a model of nephrotoxicity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989; 59: 1165–70.
Hoeprich PD. Chemotherapy of systemic fungal diseases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1978; 18: 205–31.
Joly V, Saint-Pierre-Chazalet M, Saint-Julien L, Bolard J, Carbon C, Yeni P. Inhibiting cholesterol synthesis reduces the binding and toxicity of amphotericin B against rabbit renal tubular cells in primary culture. J Infect Dis 1992; 165: 337–43.
Cheng JT, Witty RT, Robinson RR, Yarger WE. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity: Increased renal resistance and tubule permeability. Kidney Int 1982; 22: 626–33.
Butler WT, Hill GJ, Szwed CF, Knight V. Amphotericin B renal toxicity in the dog. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1964; 143: 47–56.
Gerkens JF, Heidemann HTh, Jackson EK, Branch RA. Aminophylline inhibits renal vasoconstriction induced by intrarenal hypertonic saline. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1983; 225: 609–15.
Heidemann HTh, Gerkens GF, Jackson EK, Branch RA. Effect of aminophylline on renal vasoconstriction produced by amphotericin B in the rat. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 1983; 324: 148–52.
Sabra R, Takahashi K, Branch RA, Badr KF. Mechanisms of amphotericin B-induced reduction of the glomerular filtration rate: a micropuncture study. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990; 253(1): 34–7.
Tolins JP, Raij L. Adverse effect of amphotericin B on renal hemodynamics in the rat: Neurohumoral mechanisms and influence of calcium channel blockade. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1988; 245: 594–9.
Heyman SN, Clark BA, Kaiser N, Epstein FH, Spokes K, Rosen S., Brezis M. In-vivo and in-vitro studies on the effect of amphotericin B on endothelin release. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 29: 69–77.
Hardie W, Ebert J, Takahashi K, Badr KF. Thromboxane A2 receptor antagonism reverses amphotericin B-induced renal vasoconstriction in the rat. Prostaglandins 1993; 45: 47–56.
Branch RA. Prevention of amphotericin B-induced renal impairment: A review on the use of sodium supplementation. Arch Intern Med 1988; 148: 2389–94.
Schnermann J. Regulation of single nephron filtration rate by feedback: Facts and theories. Clin Nephrol 1975; 3: 75–81.
Thurau K. Modification of angiotensin-mediated tubuloglomerular feedback by extracellular volume. Kidney Int 1975; 8: S202–7.
Wright FS, Schnermann J. Interference with feedback control of glomerular filtration rate by furosemide, triflocin, and cyanide. J Clin Invest 1974; 53: 1695–708.
Gerkens JF, Branch RA. The influence of sodium status and furosemide on canine acute amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1980; 214: 306–11.
Ohnishi A, Ohnishi T, Stevenhead W, Robinson RD, Glick A, O’Day DM, Sabra R, Jackson EK, Branch RA. Sodium status influences chronic amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in rats. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989; 33(8): 1222–7.
Tolins JP, Raij L. Chronic amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the rat: protective effect of calcium channel blockade. J Am Soc Nephrol 1991; 2(1): 98–102.
Tolins JP, Raij L. Chronic amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the rat, protective effect of prophylactic salt loading. Am J Kidney Dis 1988; XI(4): 313–7.
Heidemann HTh, Bolten M, Inselmann G. Effect of chronic theophylline administration on amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in rats. Nephron 1991; 59: 294–8.
Kuan CJ, Branch RA, Jackson EK. Effect of an adenosine receptor antagonist on acute amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Eur J Pharmacol 1990; 178: 285–91.
Sawaya BP, Weihprecht H, Campbell WR, Lorenz JN, Webb RC, Briggs JP, Schnermann J. Direct vasocon-striction as a possible cause for induced nephrotoxicity in rats. J Clin Invest 1991; 87: 2097–107.
Sabra R, Branch RA. Effect of amphotericin B on intracellular calcium levels in cultured glomerular mesangial cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1992; 226: 79–85.
Wasan KM, Vadiel K, Lopez-Berenstein G, Verani RR, Luke DR. Pentoxifylline in amphotericin B toxicity rat model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990; 34(2): 241–4.
Luke DR, Wasan KM, Verani RR, Brunner LJ, Vadiei K, Lopez-Berestein G. Attenuation of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the candidiasis rat model. Nephron 1991; 59: 139–44.
Soupart A, Decaux G. Nifedipine and amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the rat. Nephron 1989; 52: 278–80.
Heidemann HT, Brune KH, Sabra R, Branch RA. Acute and chronic effects of flucytosine on amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in rats. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36(12): 2670–5.
Brezis M, Rosen S, Silva P, Spokes K, Epstein F. Polyene toxicity in renal medulla: injury mediated by transport activity. Science 1984; 224: 66–8.
Utz JP. Chemotherapy of the systemic mycoses. Med Clin North Am 1982; 66: 221–34.
Hellesbusch AA, Salama F, Eadie E. The use of mannitol to reduce the toxicity of amphotericin B. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1972; 134: 241–3.
Olivero TJ, Lozano-Mendez L, Ghafary EM, Eknoyan G, Suki WN. Mitigation of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity with mannitol. Br Med J 1975; 1: 550–1.
Rosch JM, Pazin GJ, Fireman P. Reduction of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity with mannitol. JAMA 1976; 235: 1995–6.
Said R, Martin P, Anicama H, Quintanilla A, Levin ML. Effect of mannitol on acute amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Res Exp Med 1980; 177: 85–90.
Reiner NE, Thompson WL. Dopamine and saralasin antagonism of renal vasoconstriction and oliguria caused by amphotericin B in dogs. J Infect Dis 1979; 140: 564–75.
Brooks DP, Mitchell MP, Short BG, Ruffolo RR, Nichols AJ. Attenuation of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the dog by the fenoldopam prodrug, SK&F R-105058. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1991; 2577(3): 1243–7.
Nichols AJ, Koster PF, Brooks DP, Ruffolo RR Jr. Effect of fenoldopam on the acute and subacute nephrotoxicity produced by amphotericin B in the dog. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992; 260(1): 269–74.
Heidemann HTh, Gerkens GF, Spickard WA, Jackson EK, Branch RA. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in humans decreased by salt repletion. Am J Med 1983; 75: 476–81.
Payne NI, Cosgrove RF, Green AP, Liu L. In-vivo studies of amphotericin B liposomes derived from proliposomes: effect of formulation on toxicity and tissue disposition of the drug in mice. J Pharm Pharmacol 1987; 39: 24–8.
Szoka FC, Milholland D, Barza M. Effect of lipid composition and liposome size on toxicity and in vitro fungicidal activity of liposome-intercalated amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987; 31: 421–9.
Juliano RL, Grant CWM, Barber KR, Kalp MA. Mechanism of the selective toxicity of amphotericin B incorporated into liposomes. Molecular Pharmacology 1987; 31: 1–11.
Clemons KV, Stevens DA. Comparative efficacy of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion and amphotericin B deoxycholate suspension in treatment of murine coccidiomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 1829–33.
Hostetier JS, Clemons KV, Hanson LH, Stevens DA. Efficacy and safety of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion compared with those of amphotericin B deoxycholate suspension for treatment of disseminated murine cryptococcosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 2656–60.
Proffitt RT, Satorius A, Chiang S-M, Sullivan L, Adler-Moore JP Pharmacology and toxicology of a liposomal preparation of amhotericin B (AmBisome) in rodents. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28 (suppl B): 49–61.
Ralph ED, Khazindar AM, Barber KR, Grant CW. Comparative in vitro effects of liposomal amphotericin B, amphotericin B-deoxycholate, and free amphotericin B against fungal strains determined by using MIC and minimal lethal concentration susceptibility studies and time-kill curves. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 188–91.
Anaissie E, Paetznick V, Proffitt R, Adler-Moore J, Bodey GP. Comparison of the in vitro antifungal activity of free and liposome-encapsulated amphotericin B. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1991; 10: 665–8.
Krause HJ, Juliano RL. Interaction of liposome-in-corporated amphotericin B with kidney epithelial cell structures. Mol Pharmacol 1987; 34: 287–97.
Joly V, Saint-Julien L, Carbon C, Yeni P. Interactions of free and liposomal amphotericin B with renal proximal tubular cells in primary culture. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990; 255: 17–22.
Joly V, Dromer F, Barge J, Yeni P, Seta N, Molas G, Carbon C. Incorporation of amphotericin B (AMB) into liposomes alter AMB-induced acute nephrotoxicity in rabbits. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1989; 251: 311–6.
Longuet P, Joly V, Amirault P, Seta N, Carbon C, Yeni P. Limited protection by small unilamellar liposomes against the renal tubular toxicity induced by repeated amphotericin B infusion in rats. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 1303–8.
Gondal JA, Swartz RP, Rahman A. Therapeutic evaluation of free and liposome-encapsulated amphotericin B in the treatment of systemic candidiasis in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989; 33: 1544–8.
Lopez-Berenstein G, Mehta R, Hopfer RL, Mills K, Kasi L, Mehta K, Fainstein V, Luna M, Hersh EM, Juliano R. Treatment and prophylaxis of disseminated infection due to Candida albicans in mice with liposome-encapsulated amphotericin B. J Infect Dis 1983; 147: 939–44.
Lopez-Berestein G, Fainstein V, Hopfer R, Mehta K, Sullivan MP, Keating M, Rosenblum MG, Mehta R, Luna M, Hersh EM, Reuben J, Juliano RL, Bodey GP. Liposomal amphotericin B for the treatment of systemic fungal infections in patients with cancer: a preliminary study. J Infect Dis 1985; 151: 704–10.
Lopez-Berestein G, Bodey GP, Frankel LS, Mehta K. Treatment of hepatosplenic candidiasis with liposomal-amphotericin B. J Clin Onc 1987; 5: 310–7.
Lopez-Berenstein G. Liposomes as carriers of antifungal drugs. Ann NY Acad Sci 1988; 544: 590–7.
Lopez-Berestein G, Bodey GP, Fainstein V, Keating M, Frankel LS, Zeluff B, Gentry L, Mehta K. Treatment of systemic fungal infections with liposomal amphotericin B. Arch Int Med 1989; 149: 2533–6.
Meunier F, Sculier JP, Coune A, Brassinne C, Heyman C, Laduron C, Collette N, Hollaert C, Bron D, Klastersky J. Amphotericin B encapsulated in liposomes administered to cancer patients. Ann NY Acad Sci 1988; 544: 598–610.
Llanos-Cuentas A, Chang J, Cieza J, Echevarria J, Garcia P, Lentnek A et al. Safety and tolerance of amphotericin B lipid complex vs Fungizone in patients with mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. In Program and Abstracts of the 30th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Atlanta GA, American Society for Microbiology 1990.
Meunier F, Prentice HG, Ringdén O. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome): safety data from a phase II/III clinical trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28 (suppl B): 83–91.
Ringdén O, Meunier F, Tollemar J, Ricci P, Tura S, Kuse E, Viviani MA, Gorin NC, Klastersky J, Fenaux P, Prentice HG, Ksionski G. Efficacy of amphotericin B encapsulated in liposomes (AmBisome) in the treatment of invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28 (suppl B): 73–82.
Taylor R, Williams DM, Craven PC, Graybill JR, Drutz DJ, Magee WE. Amphotericin B in liposomes: a novel therapy for histoplasmosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 125: 610–1.
Meunier F. New methods for delivery of antifungal agents. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11 (suppl 7): S1605–12.
Wiebe VJ, DeGregorio MW. Liposome-encapsulated amphotericin B: a promising new treatment for disseminated fungal infections. Rev Infect Dis 1988; 10(6): 1097–101.
Graybill JR, Craven PC, Taylor RL, Williams DM, Magee WE. Treatment of murine cryptococcosis with liposome-associated amphotericin B. J Infect Dis 1982; 145: 748–52.
Gerkens JF, Bhagwandeen SB, Dosen PJ, Smith AJ. The effect of salt intake on cyclosporine-induced impairment of renal function in rats. Transplantation 1984; 38: 412–7.
Smith SR, Galloway MJ, Reilly JT, Davies JM. Amiloride prevents amphotericin B related hypokalemia in neutropenic patients. J Clin Pathol 1988; 41: 494–7.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bernardo, J.F., Sabra, R., Branch, R.A. (1998). Amphotericin B. In: De Broe, M.E., Porter, G.A., Bennett, W.M., Verpooten, G.A. (eds) Clinical Nephrotoxins. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9088-4_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9088-4_9
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-015-9090-7
Online ISBN: 978-94-015-9088-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive