Abstract
There was no distinguishable pattern of the office of Ambassador at Large. Each appointment provided an occasion to define the office, for each took place in the conditioning atmosphere of world politics where unique events and conditions called attention to the need for an Ambassador at Large. The qualifications required for the position, the reason for the appointment, and the actual performance were a function of that need.
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References
See Table 3 for a summary of the background of the Ambassadors at Large.
Warren Ilchman, Professional Diplomacy in the United States, 1779–1939: A Study in Administrative History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), p. 167.
Ibid.., pp. 164, 170–171.
Henry S. Villard, Affairs at State (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1965), p. 152.
See John E. Harr, The Professional Diplomat (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969).
George Modelski, “The World’s Foreign Ministers: A Political Elite,” The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 14 (June, 1970), p. 150.
Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1960), pp. 11–12, and Chapter 8, “The Elite Nucleus.”
Letter from Dean Rusk dated March 20, 1970. His opinion on this point is particularly important, because of the eight Ambassadors at Large appointed as of May, 1971, Rusk was Secretary of State during the tenure of six — Harriman, Bowles, Thompson, Bunker, Lodge, and McGhee.
Henry M. Wriston, “The Secretary of State Abroad,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 34 (July, I956), p. 532.
Henry M. Wriston, The same information was provided in an interview with J. Stewart Cottman, Special Assistant to the Deputy Under Secretary for Administration, February 11, 1971.
Henry M. Wriston, There were other factors involved as well, including the fact that Secretary Acheson and President Truman had a close working relationship, and the President wanted Acheson close at hand. Moreover, the extent to which the Secretary traveled abroad would reflect the personal desires of each Secretary of State.
Wriston, Ibid.., p. 534.
Letter from Dr. Milton S. Eisenhower dated February 9, 1971.
See Robert D. Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1964).
See Table 4 for a summary of these conclusions.
Dean Rusk letter of March 20, 1970. The following are selected statements which indicate similar notions concerning the flexible nature of the postition: Charles E. Bohlen in a letter dated February 9, 1971 — “… a floating emissary who could move from one job or the other depending on the circumstances;” McGeorge Bundy in a letter dated February 11, 1971 — “Each case is different;” W. Averell Harriman in an interview, March 12, 1970 — “The Ambassador at Large office was ad hoc in the sense that each man acted in the role of Ambassador at Large based on previous abilities and the needs at the time. The beauty of the position was the freedom;” William B. Macomber, Jr., in an interview, February 11, 1971 — “The key element was its flexibility;” Llewellyn E. Thompson in a letter dated March 18, 1970 — “There is no set procedure…. In each case, the setup was adjusted to the individual concerned;” and finally, Henry M. Wriston in a letter dated February 11, 1971 — “The more definitely you try to pin it down, the more likely (certainty!) that the next instance will break your rank. It is a fluid office.”
However, Secretary Rusk only attended major conferences three times as Secretary of State, serving during the tenure of six of the Ambassadors at Large, and of those three times, only once — the 18-Nation Disarmament Conference at Geneva in 1962 — was the Ambassador at Large not also present. For Secretary Rusk’s attendance at international conferences, see Appendix D.
Acheson added personal testimony to Jessup’s help in this regard in a letter dated November 5, 1969.
Interview with W. Avereil Harriman, March 12, 1970.
Thompson held that the Ambassador at Large designation was particularly useful at these conferences because “it indicated fairly high rank in order that the other participants would send people of equal rank and responsibility.” See U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, “Nomination of Llewellyn E. Thompson to be Ambassador at Large,” (Unpublished report of proceedings, October 1, 1962, National Archives), pp. 3–4.
That this was indeed important was indicated in 1970, at the Paris Peace Conference on Vietnam. When Ambassador Lodge was replaced by a regular Foreign Service Officer, it was construed by the North Vietnamese as a lessening of importance of the Conference on the part of the United States and they were not satisfied otherwise until Ambassador Bruce was appointed as the United States Representative. An Ambassador at Large would help to solve this problem by being more acceptable to the other parties.
Don K. Price, “The Secretary and Our Unwritten Constitution,” in Don K. Price (ed.), The Secretary of State (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1960), p. 184.
C. F. Baldwin, “Use of Special Envoys,” Washington Post, April 24, 1965.
During Secretary Rusk’s eight years as Secretary of State, he traveled more than 590,000 miles, and spent over 1/8 of his time (approximately 390 days) in foreign travel. This is broken down roughly as follows: Foreign Ministers’ meetings — 36 times for 172 days; conferring with government officials, chiefs of state and heads of government, the Foreign Minister, and embassy officials — 33 times for 88 days; with the President at chiefs of state meetings — 7 times for 49 days; at general international conferences — 3 times for 36 days; conferring with United States officials and Ambassadors — 5 times for 14 days; and ceremonial functions — 13 times for 31 days. See Appendix D.
E. L. Woodward, “The Old and the New Diplomacy,” Yale Review (Spring, 1947), p. 420.
Wriston, “The Secretary of State Abroad,” op. cit.., p. 540.
Villard, op. cit.., p. 202.
Selected Bibliography(174–184)
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Bowles, Chester.. “A Close Look at Africa,” Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 47 (December 31, 1962), pp. 1003–4.
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Department of State Bulletin, 1940–1971.
Department of State News Letter, 1940–1971.
“Diplomacy in Transition,” Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 17 (1963), pp. 1–69.
“Diplomat With a Flair,” The New York Times, April 2, 1968, p. 26.
Downs, Bill. “Harriman’s Broom,” Newsweek, November 15, 1943, p. 25.
“Durable Crocodile,” Time, November 25, 1966, p. 36.
“End of an Era,” Time, September 20, 1954, pp. 24–25.
“Enter the Trouble Shooter,” Newsweek, September 30, 1946, p. 21.
“Envoys U.S. and British Ties Should Aid Russian Relations,” Newsweek, October 11, 1943, p. 48.
Feis, Herbert. “The Three Who Led,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 37 (January, 1959), pp. 282–93.
“First Shake-up on the New Frontier: Its Meaning,” U.S. News, December 11, 1961, pp. 44–46.
Friendly, Alfred. “Harriman Starts His Briefing Tour,” The New York Times, October 28, 1966, p. 17.
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Gerber, William. “Organizational Reform in the Department of State and the Foreign Service,” in Stephen D. Kertesz, ed., American Diplomacy in a New Era (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1961), pp. 386–417.
“The Glassboro Summit,” Newsweek, July 3, 1967, pp. 14–16.
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Harriman, W. Averell. “Some Current Issues in United States Foreign Policy: Remarks,” Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 48 (May 6, 1963), pp. 693–98.
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Kertesz, Stephen D. “Diplomacy in the Atomic Age,” Review of Politics, Vol. 21 (January-April, 1959), pp. 357–88.
Kertesz, Stephen D. “Summit and Personal Diplomacy,” in his The Quest for Peace Through Diplomacy (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), chapter 5.
Kraft, Joseph. “The Dean Rusk Show,” The New York Times Magazine, March 24, 1968, pp. 35 +.
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Burke, L.H. (1972). The Ambassador at Large — Past and Future. In: Ambassador at Large: Diplomat Extraordinary. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-0466-9_6
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