Abstract
The year 1937, “in which fascism and nazism became bolder in their verbal and diplomatic attacks upon democracy, communism, the territorial status quo, and the system of collective security as represented by the League of Nations”,1 seemed to offer a determined effort to inaugurate the establishment of Japanese hegemony in Eastern Asia. The incident at the Marco Polo Bridge on the outskirts of Peiping on July 7, 1937 provided the Land of the Rising Sun with the pretext to set off against China a full-scale war, which was regarded as “a natural consequence of fixed national policy calling for establishment of a solid footing on the continent.”2 Japan decided to strike before the Kuomintang-Communist Alliance, following the Sian kidnapping episode of December 1936, could be developed into an effective united front against her.
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References
P. H. Clyde, op. cit., p. 658.
Joseph W. Ballantine, “Mukden to Pearl Harbor. The Foreign Policies of Japan”, Foreign Affairs, July 1949, p. 654.
Herbert Feis, The Road to Pearl Harbor (Princeton Univ. Press, New Jersey 1950), p. 9.
W. L. Langer & S. E. Gleason, The Challenge to Isolation 1937–1940 (Royal Institute of Int. Affairs, London 1952), p. 14.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1291; Timetable No. 10.
A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs 1938, Vol. I (Oxford Univ. Press London 1941), p. 498.
Quoted in Survey of International Affairs 1938, Vol I, p. 496.
The Times, February 16,1939. Quoted in Survey of International Affairs 1938, Vol.1, p. 501.
T. Kase, op. cit., p. 37.
ibid.
ibid.
Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918–1945 (From the Archives of the German Foreign Ministry), Series D(1937–1945), Vol. I (His Majesty’s Stationary Office, London 1949), p. 827.
See Chapter IV: “Germany and the Far East, July 1937-September 1938”, pp. 733-897 in Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918–1945, Series D(1937–1943), Vol. I (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington 1949). Japan made a series of protests in 1937 against the continued stay of the German military advisers. In 1937 Germany also furnished Chiang Kai-shek with weapons to the value of 82,788,000 marks.
Japanese Naval Commander Maeda (well-known in Batavia in 1945 as Vice-Admiral) suggested this transaction to the German Naval Attaché of the German Embassy in Tokyo on January 15, 1938 (Series D, Vol. I., pp. 818-819). Hitler, however, did not want to relinquish a single colonial trump.
The Challenge to Isolation 1937–1940, p. 65.
T. Kase, op. cit., p. 38.
The Challenge to Isolation 1937–1940, p. 64.
Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 37.
S. F. Bemis, A Diplomatie History of the United States (Henry Holt and Company, New York 1950), p. 863.
George W. Keeton, op. cit., p. 242.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 509; Timetable No. 12. Count Terauchi expressed this opinion while visiting German General HQS in September 1939.
S. F. Bemis, op. cit., p. 863.
The Challenge to Isolation 1937–1940, p. 294.
ibid., p. 596.
ibid., p. 603.
New York Times, June 30, 1940; Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 529; Foreign Relations of the United States: Japan: 1931–1941, Vol. II (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington 1943), pp. 93-94.
Timetable No. 29.
Resolution of the Conference of representatives of the Army, Navy, and Foreign Office, July 12-16, 1940; Timetable No. 35.
For details of this Foreign Office plan, see The Challenge to Isolation 1937–1940, pp. 605-606.
Prince Konoye was at this time the leader of a movement aiming at an authoritarian régime and a one-party state on the model of Totalitarian Powers in Europe.
Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 112.
Timetable Nos. 37 and 38; 26 and 27 July 1940: “Resolution of the Second Konoye Cabinet determining fundamental national policy aimed at establishing a New Order in Great East Asia”, and “Resolution of the Liaison Conference about the Gist of Main Points in regard to Dealing with the situation to meet the change in World conditions;” Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. Nos. 541 and 1310.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1297; Timetable No. 39.
Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 113.
For details see Herbert Feis, op. cit., pp. 113-114.
Quoted in Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 117.
See Documents on American Foreign Relations, Vol. III, 1940–1941 (World Peace Foundation, Boston 1941), pp. 304-311.
Quoted in Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 111.
T. Kase, op. cit., p. 41.
Quoted in Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 120.
Rumania, Hungary, France (Vichy), Spain, etc.
Hoover Doc. No.837 A of the “Prosecution Section,Inter. Mil.Trib. for the Far East” present in the Hoover Library, California (cited in what follows as “Hoover Doc.”): “Outline of Japanese Foreign Policy” of September 28, 1940 with further elaboration “Tentative Plan for Policy towards the Southern Regions” of October 4, 1940. Summary in Timetable Nos. 51 and 53, referring to Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 628.
Based on the text of Hoover Doc. No. 837A. In general these documents are badly translated. Timetable No. 53 shows the occupation of the East Indies oilfields as preceding that of Singapore in the plan, which, however, is in complete conflict with the context of the document and is also not shown as such in Hoover Doc. No. 837A.
See Chapter I (Part II): “Plans for Indonesia”.
“Outline for the Economic Construction of Japan, Manchukuo and China”, decided upon in the Cabinet meeting of October 3, 1940, Hoover Doc. No. 1611A; Summary in Timetable No. 52, referring to Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 861.
See Chapter IV (Part I): “Policy in Manchuria”.
T. A. Bisson, Japan’s War Economy (Institute of Pacific Relations, New York 1945), p. 18. Bisson’s account of events confutes the theory he advances in his introduction that Japan’s war policy was the work of the Army and the Zaibatsu, working in concord.
ibid., pp. 51-61. General Tojo brought his collaborator, Hoshino, back into the government as the Cabinet Secretary (ibid., p. 76).
ibid., pp. 54-55.
A colourful account of Tojo’s personal authority in the war years is given by a Frenchman, R. Guillain (Le Peuple Japonais et la Guerre, 1939–1946, Paris 1947). During the war Guillain was in Japan where he enjoyed a certain amount of freedom of movement.
Report of the Chief of the General Staff of the Navy to the Mikado, August 10, 1940, Timetable No. 41; Far East Mill. Trib., Exh. No. 1298.
ibid. Marquis Kido wrote in his Diary on August 10, 1940: “The Emperor told me what he and Prince Fushimi, Chief of the Navy General Staff, had talked about. The Prince said that ‘The Navy at present want to avoid the use of force against Singapore and the Netherlands Indies, and that, since at least eight months will be required for preparations after a decision for war is made, the later war comes the better’.” — Quoted in Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 105.
Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 190.
February 20, 1941. Churchill’s reply in the House of Commons, February 23, 1941.
The details concerning Matsuoka’s visit are still mainly known from the German archives. See the U.S. Dept. of State: Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941 (1948), pp. 280–324. See also William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War, 1940–1941 (Royal Institute of Int. Affairs, London 1953) pp. 345-359; Herbert Feis, op. cit., pp. 180-187. Stalin’s unusual, effusive display of friendliness towards Germany on the occasion of Matsuoka’s departure (Stalin embraced and kissed the German Military Attaché, saying: “We will remain friends with you — in any event.”) can only be explained by the fact of Matsuoka’s warning. The Japanese Foreign Minister had been extremely reserved in his attitude towards the German representatives during this second visit to Moscow. For an eyewitness account see Toshikazu Kase, op. cit., p. 159. See also W. S. Churchill, The Second World War, Vol. III, The Grand Alliance (Cassell &Co. Ltd., London 1950), pp. 161-172.
Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941, p. 310.
See Chapter II (Part II): “Preparations for Conquest: Negotiations”.
At the Staff Conference of February 1, 1941 the military experts had already insisted on this occupation, but Matsuoka had succeeded in getting this delayed in order not to be bound to a plan of strategy during his talks in Berlin. The occupation was decided upon at the Liaison Conference between the Government and the Imperial Headquarters on June 25, 1941 (Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1306; Timetable No. 92).
Joseph W. Ballantine, “Mukden to Pearl Harbor. The Foreign Relations of Japan”, op cit., p. 660. Despite the promising title, this article is very brief and incomplete.
T. Kase, op. cit., p. 48.
Joseph W. Ballantine, op. cit., p. 661; Herbert Feis, op. cit., pp. 211-217; Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 588; Timetable No. 93. An urgent call on Japan by the German Government to throw her troops into the battle against Russia came too late (July 10). It is remarkable that though the Japanese Naval Commanders desired rather than feared a rally by the American fleet to the Western side of the Pacific Ocean, they all the same allowed themselves to be governed by theoretical military thinking and decided to attack the Americans in their own harbours, although they had no troops ready to occupy the harbours immediately after the attack.
T. A. Bisson, America’s Far Eastern Policy (The Macmillan Company, for the Intstitute of Pacific Relations, New York 1945), pp. 125–126.
Deposition of Suzuki, Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 3605.
Cable No. 708, Tokyo to Berlin, July 31, 1941. Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 249.
Herbert Feis, op. cit., p. 269.
T. Kase, op. cit., p. 50.
ibid.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 588; Timetable No. 100.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 809; Timetable Nos. 101 and 102.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. Nos. 809 and 1252; Timetable No. 103.
T. Kase, op. cit., p. 57.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. Nos. 1328 and 1329; Timetable No. 106.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. Nos. 878, 1169 and 1176; Timetable No. 108.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1252; Timetable Nos. 109 end 110.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 588; Timetable No. 116.
Hoover Doc. No. 1448, “Details of the Execution of Administration in the Southern Occupied Territories”, Decisions of Liaison Conference, November 20, 1941; Summary in Timetable No. 112, referring to Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 877.
The instruction for the printing of occupation money for the Dutch East Indies and other regions had already been given in January 1941. See Timetable No. 72 (Inter Prosec. Section, Doc. 9022, see Exh. No. 840).
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1331; Timetable No. 114. The Sixth Committee came into being on December 2, 1941 and was modified on January 23, 1942.
Hoover Doc. No. 1492: “Outline of the Economic Counter-Plans for the Southern Area”, December 12, 1941; Summary in Timetable No. 124, referring to Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1332.
Hoover Doc. No. 1112A: “Summarized Plan for Management of the South Sea Area”, December 14, 1941; Summary in Timetable No. 125 referring to Far Eas Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1333A.
See Chapter I (Part II): “Plans for Indonesia”.
Hoover Doc. No. 1987B: “The Fundamental Principles of the Remedial Measures for Southern Regions to be occupied as a Result of the Great East Asia War” and “Plan for Land Disposal within the Greater Asiatic Co-Prosperity Sphere”, December 1941. Summary in Timetable Nos. 126 and 127, referring to Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1334.
Thus the maintenance of the production of these materials for trade with areas outside the Co-Prosperity Sphere was in principle rejected.
This may be understood to mean the translation (perhaps defective) of the Japanese text in Hoover Doc. 1987B, which runs thus: “In case of necessity these monarchies shall be organized as Coalition monarchies”.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 868; Timetable No. 128. The “Total War Research Institute” was established by a law in October 1940 under the direct supervision of the Premier in order to make a profound study of the needs of the total national war as well as to lead and control in this respect the education and training of official personalities.
Hoover Doc. No. 2402B: “Draft of Basic Plan for Establishment of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” (Total War Research Institute), January 27, 1942; Summary in Timetable No. 129 referring to Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1336.
Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941, op. cit., p. 297. See also The Undeclared War, 1940–1941, op cit., p. 348; W. S. Churchill, The Second World War, Vol. III, pp. 166-167.
Hoover Doc. No. 1621C: “Establishment of East Asia. Manœuvers for the First Period of Total War”, February 18, 1942. Summary in Timetable No. 128 referring to Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 1335.
Far East Mil. Trib., Exh. No. 675A; Timetable No. 130.
“Draft of Basic Plan for Establishment of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”, January 27, 1942, op. cit.
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© 1955 Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland
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Aziz, M.A. (1955). Japanese Blueprint (1937–1941). In: Japan’s Colonialism and Indonesia. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-9233-0_6
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