Abstract
Approaching the contemporary period, the aims of the Great Powers as they are reflected in Germany appear in sharp perspective. The United States continued to hold fast in Germany in an effort to contain Soviet expansion. To the Soviets the partition of Germany represented a single stage in the struggle to extend their control in Central Europe. Here, as in other areas of the world, “coexistence” meant the adoption of an aggressive role by the Soviet Union as opposed to an often passive one of the West.
We must demand the right of self-determination for all Germans and the reunification of Germany.1
Chancellor Adenauer, December 25, 1961
Manipulating the slogan of self-determination of the German nation in the conditions in which two independent German states exist is a rather cheap trick.2
Soviet note on Berlin, August 3, 1961
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Reference
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New York Times, August 13, 1955.
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“The German Democratic Republic describes herself as German heir state, 29th Aug., 1956,” Siegler, p. 93. The Federal Republic denied all validity in the East German claim on October 22, 1956. See ibid., p. 93.
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Deutsch and Edinger, p. 183; and Alstair Home, Return to Power: A Report on the New Germany (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1956), p. 405. Also see New York Times, August 13, 1955.
Deutsch and Edinger, p. 183; and Siegler, p. 89.
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David J. Dallin, Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin (New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1961), pp. 267–268.
‘Treaty Between the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic, September 20, 1955,” Documents on Germany, 1944–1959, pp. 156-157.
“Statement by the American, British, and French Foreign Ministers, on the Soviet-GDR Agreements, September 28, 1955,” ibid., pp. 158-159.
Edgar McInnis, “The Search for a Settlement,” The Shaping of Postwar Germany, ed. Edgar MacInnis, Richard Hiscocks, and Robert Spencer, Canadian Institute of International Affairs (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1960), p. 50.
“Arrival of Federal German Ambassador Haas, in Moscow, 1st March, 1956,” Siegler, pp.91-92.
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“Memorandum from the Federal Republic of Germany to the Soviet Union, on German Reunification and European Security, September 2, 1956,” Documents on Germany, 1944–1959, pp 192-193.
Ibid., pp. 194-195.
“Soviet note in reply to the West German memorandum, 22nd Oct., 1956,” Siegler, pp. 93-98.
Ibid., pp. 71-72.
“Bulganin’s message to Adenauer, 5th Feb., 1957,” ibid., pp. 100-102.
“Dr. Adenauer’s answer to the Bulganin Message, 22nd Feb., 1957,” ibid., pp. 73-75.
“Bulganin’s second message to Adenauer, 18th March, 1957, ibid., p. 103; and “Adenauer’s second reply to Bulganin: verbal note sent, 16th April, 1957,” ibid., p. 75.
G. Rassadin, “For Peaceful Cooperation Between German and Soviet Peoples,” Pravda, March 3, 1957 as quoted in The Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. IX (April 10, 1957), p. 27.
“Soviet Government warns Federal Government against arming Federal forces with atomic weapons, 27th April, 1957,” Siegler, pp. 167-169.
“Reply of the Federal Government to the Soviet warning against atomic arming, 22nd May, 1957, ibid., pp. 157-159.
Ibid., pp. 156-157.
“Second memorandum of the Federal Government of the Soviet Government, 20th May, 1957,” ibid., 76-80.
“Federal Government Aide-Memoire to the Four Powers on the constitution of a Four Power Group, 9th Sept., 1958,” ibid., Annex, p. 16.
“Soviet notes to the Federal Republic, the GDR, and the three Western Powers reject Federal Republic’s proposal on the creation of a Four Power Group and identify themselves with GDR proposals for Four Power Commission, 18 Sept., 1958,” ibid., Annex, pp. 16-20. The Soviet Union desired a commission which would devote itself exclusively to the matter of a peace treaty.
“Notes from three Western Powers to Soviet Union and Federal Republic concerning agreement to Four Power Group and rejection of Four Power Commission, 30th Sept., 19,” ibid., pp. 20-22
Richard Hiscocks, “Divided Germany,” The Shaping of Postwar Germany, ed. Edgar McInnis, Richard Hiscocks, and Robert Spencer, Canadian Institute of International Affairs (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1960), p. 84.
Siegler, p. 164.
M. E. Bathurst and J. L. Simpson, Germany and the North Atlantic Community, London Institute of World Affairs (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1956), pp. 205–207.
“Erich Mende,” Siegler, pp. 114-115.
“Where We Came In,” New Statesman, Vol. LXII (November 10, 1961), p. 1.
“Erich Ollenhauer,” Siegler, pp. 116-118.
Vorstand der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands, Deutschlandplan der SPD (Bonn: Storbeck and Co., 1959), pp. 4-24.
Washington Post, August 17, 1961; and New York Times, October 9, 1961.
Sydney Gruson, “Adenauer Forms a Shaky Coalition,” New York Times, November 5, 1961, p. 15.
Michael Howard, Disengagement in Europe (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, U.K.: Penguin Books, 1958), pp. 26-27; and George Sawicki, From Nuremberg to the New Wehrmacht (Warsaw: Polonia Publishing House, 1957), pp. 449–454.
Hans J. Morgenthau, “Germany: The Political Problem,” Germany and the Future of Europe, ed. Hans J. Morgenthau (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), p. 85.
“Statement by Prime Minister Eden, July 18, 1955,” The Geneva Conference of Heads of Government, p. 34; and Schlueter, p. 99.
“Eden proposes European security pact without any obligation on the part of all-Germany to join NATO, 23rd July, 1956,” Siegler, p. 155.
Howard, pp. 28-29.
Hugh Gaitskell, “Disengagement: Why? How?,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 36 (July, 1958), pp. 551–552.
George F. Kennan, Russia, the Atom, and the West (New York: Harper and Bros., 1958), pp. 35–46.
Dean Acheson, “The Illusion of Disengagement,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 36 (April, 1958), pp. 375–376.
James Bryant Conant, Germany and Freedom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958), p. 107.
Gerald Freund, Germany Between Two Worlds (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1961), pp. 256–277.
Howard, p. 29. For a very strong statement with regard to the official reaction of the United States to the proposed neutralizing and demilitarizing of Germany see “Remarks at News Conference by Secretary of State Dulles, on Germany, January 13, 1959,” Documents on Germany, 1944–1950, pp. 371-374. Secretary of State Rusk similarly rejected the idea, see New York Times, October 28, 1961.
Washington Post, November 9, 1961.
Deutsch and Edinger, p. 181; and Terence Prittie, Germany Divided (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1960), pp. 214 and 351. For an unequivocal statement of Adenauer’s view of disengagement see “From Chancellor Adenauer: Why Germany should be united” (interview). United States News and World Report, November 30, 1959, pp. 71-72.
Deutsch and Edinger, p. 258; and Karol Malcuzynski, “What the Rapacki Plan Is and What It Is Not,” Trybuna Ludu, October 22, 1961, as reprinted in Poland, Embassy of the Polish People’s Republic, Press Office, Documents and Reports, No. 13 (Washington, 1961).
“Letter from Premier Bulganin to President Eisenhower, on European Security, the Rapacki Plan, and Disarmament, December 10, 1957,” Documents on Germany, 1944–1950, p. 225.
“Statement by President Eisenhower, on German Reunification, and Berlin December 16, 1957,” ibid., p. 227. An atom-free zone plan is, however, attractive to Senator Hubert Humphrey. See Washington Post, October 17, 1961.
Malcuzynski, pp. 3-4.
Hugh Seton-Watson, Neither War nor Peace: The Struggle for Power in the Postwar World (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1960), p. 346.
United States, Department of State, Background: Berlin-1961, Department of State Publication 7257 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961), p. 29; and Joseph G. Whelan, The Problem of Berlin: A Survey from 1955 to July 1959 and Interpretative Analysis, The Library of Congress, Legislative Reference Service (Washington: The Library of Congress, 1959), pp. 34-35.
“Note from the Soviet Foreign Ministry to the American Ambassador at Moscow (Thompson), Regarding Berlin, November 27, 1958,” Documents on Germany, 1944–1959, pp. 328-331.
“Note from the Soviet Union to the United States, Transmitting a Draft Peace Treaty for Germany, January 10, 1959,” ibid., pp. 350-370.
“Remarks at News Conference by Secretary of State Dulles, on Germany, January 13, 1959,” ibid., pp. 370-373.
“NATO Declaration on Berlin, December 16, 1958,” ibid., pp. 333-334.
“Note from the American Embassy to the Soviet Foreign Ministry, on Germany, February 16, 1959,” ibid., p. 282.
Hans Speier, Divided Berlin: The Anatomy of Soviet Political Blackmail (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961), pp. 18-20; and New York Times, February 18 and 19, 1959. Wolfe (10056)
“Krushchev Statement on Germany,” New York Times, March 20, 1959.
“Summary of the Western Peace Plan, May 14,” United States, Department of State, Foreign Ministers Meeting, May-August, 1959, Geneva, Department of State Publication 6882 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1959), pp. 296-300.
Ibid.
“Address by Premier Khrushchev at Tirana, Albania, May 26,” ibid., p. 304.
“Statement by Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko, Presenting a Soviet Proposal on Berlin, at the Private Four-Power Meeting of June 19, 2 p.m.,” ibid., pp. 329-330.
“Statement by Mr. Herter, August 5, 1959,” ibid., pp. 486-493.
“Statement by Mr. Gromyko, August 5, 1959,” ibid., pp. 497-498.
Speier, pp. 55-56.
“Statement No. 1 Expressing the Adherence of the Federal Government of Germany to the Western Peace Plan, May 14, 1959,” as quoted in Wilhelm Grewe, Germany and Berlin: An Analysis of the 1959 Geneva Conference with Documents, German Embassy, Washington, D.C., Press and Information Office (New York: The Roy Bernard Co., no date), pp. 18-19.
Grewe, Germany and Berlin, p. 12.
“Statement by Mr. Bolz at the Twenty-fifth Session (August 5), Foreign Ministers Meeting, May-August, 1959, p. 600.
“N. S. Khrushchev Meets Journalists at the National Press Club,” Khrushchev in America (New York: Crosscurrents Press, 1960), pp. 20-22.
“The President’s News Conference, July 6, 1960,” Document 222 in United States, National Archives and Records Service, Office of the Federal Register, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Vol. 3, 1955 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1959), p. 222.
Nikita S. Khrushchev, The International Situation and Soviet Foreign Policy (New York: Crosscurrents Press, 1960), pp. 7–15.
“Statement by Premier Khrushchev at East Berlin on the U-2 Incident and Disruption of the Paris Summit Conference, May 20, 1960,” United States, Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Documents on Germany, 1944–1961, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., 1961, pp. 604-606.
“Soviet Aide Memoire of June 4, 1961,” Background: Berlin-1961, pp. 30-31.
“N. S. Khrushchev’s Moscow Radio and Television Speech on His Meeting and Talks with John F. Kennedy in Vienna, June 3 and 4, 1961,” The Soviet Stand on Germany (New York: Crosscurrents Press, 1961), pp. 30-38; and Washington Post, June 16, 1961. The plans for the meeting of the Bundesrat in West Berlin were subsequently cancelled.
“U.S. Note of July 17, 1961,” Background: Berlin-1961, p. 32.
“Statement by President Kennedy, July 19, 1961,” ibid., pp. 36-37.
“The Berlin Crisis: Report to the Nation by President Kennedy, July 25, 1961,” ibid., pp 38-39.
“The Soviet Government’s Reply to the U.S. Government Note of July 17 on a Peace Treaty with Germany and the Situation in West Berlin, August 3, 1961,” The Soviet Stand on Germany, pp. 97-101.
Board of Indivisible Germany, Berlin 13. August 1961; and Baltimore Sun, September 17, 1961.
Washington Post, December 31, 1961.
Even the construction of a wall along the border could not halt all the potential refugees, the month following the border closing some 300 guards alone fled. See New York Times, October 17, 1961.
“U.S. Note of August 17, 1961, to Soviet Government Protesting Course of Soviet Sector Border in Berlin,” Background: Berlin-1961, pp. 42-43.
“The Soviet Government’s Reply to the US Government Note of August 17 on Strengthening Controls on the Border between the German Democratic Republic and West Berlin, August 18, 1961,” The Soviet Stand on Germany, pp. 151-153.
“Divided City,” Newsweek, pp. 15-19.
New York Times, October 6, 1961.
Ibid., September 24, 1961.
Washington Post, September 29, 1961; and New York Times, September 28, October 1, 7, 8, and 24, 1961.
Washington Post, June 16, 1961.
Jacob J. Javits, “A Proposal for Taking the Initiative in Berlin,” The Reporter, December 21, 1961, pp. 21–22.
United States, Congressional Record, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., 1961, Vol. 107, No. 145 (August 22, 1961); and Walter Lippmann, “Berlin Talks,” Washington Post, October 10, 1961.
Soviet Union, Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Press Department, Report of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to Twenty-Second Congress of CPSU Presented by N. S. Khrushchev, October 17, 1961 (Summary) (Washington, 1961), p. 7.
New York Times, October i-November 3, 1961.
“Text of Communique by Kennedy, Adenauer, November 22, 1961,” Washington Post, November 23, 1961.
“Joint Communique Issued by President Kennedy and Chancellor Adenauer, April 13, 1961,” Documents on Germany, 1944–1961, pp. 641-642.
Washington Post, July 23, 1962; and New York Times, March 2, 4, and 10, 1962.
Gruson, “Adenauer Forms a Shaky Coalition.” p. E5; and Terence Prittie, “Inquiry Into Germany’s Future,” New York Times Magazine, November 5, 1961, pp. 120-121.
New York Times, September 24, 1961; and Washington Post, November 4, 1961.
New York Times, November 4 and 5, 1961.
The policy of nonrecognition is known as the “Hallstein Doctrine” named after Walter Hallstein, formerly of the West German Foreign Ministry and later President of the European Common Market Commission. On October 15, 1957, West Germany broke diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia because the latter recognized East Germany. Deutsch and Edinger, p. 258; and Baltimore Sun, November 19, 1961.
David Binder, “West Germans Balk at Ties to East,” New York Times, October 8, 1961, p. E4; and ibid., October 6 and 7, 1961.
Washington Post, October 30, 1961.
Ibid., November 18, 1961.
“The Soviet Government’s Reply to the U.S. Government Note of July 17 on a Peace Treaty with Germany and the Situation in West Berlin, August 3, 1961,” The Soviet Stand on Germany, pp. 96-100.
Walter Lippmann, “When General Clay was Overheard,” Washington Post, September 26, 1961; and “Kennedy and Adenauer,” Washington Post, October 31, 1961. In actuality there is a labor shortage in West Germany so that the additional East German labor supply would be welcome as would an expanded market for West German goods. The rapid placing of East German refugees in West German industry indicates that the economic consequences of reunification might be far from disastrous. See “The Flight to Berlin,” Newsweek, July 31, 1961, pp. 17–18.
Edgar McInnis, “Germany in the Postwar Balance,” The Shaping of Postwar Germany, ed. Edgar McInnis, Richard Hiscocks, and Robert Spencer, Canadian Institute of International Affairs (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1960), p. 177.
Baltimore Sun, October 16, 1961.
Baltimore Evening Sun, October 9, 1961.
“Adenauer: Man’s Highest Task Is Brotherhood,” West German Federal Republic, Press and information Office, The Bulletin: A Weekly Survey of German Affairs, January 2, 1962, p. 1.
New York Times, October 20, 1961.
Washington Post, August 17, 1961.
Ibid., October 17, 1961.
Deutsche Volkszeitung, May 25 and June 1, 1962; and Bund der Deutschen, Friedensvertrag und Konföderation-Reale Vorschläge zur Lösung der deutschen Frage (Düsseldorf: A. Reisen, 1959), pp. 6-9.
Henry J. Kellermann, “Party Leaders and Foreign Policy,” West German Leadership and Foreign Policy, ed. Hans Speier and W. Phillips Davison (Evanston, III.: Row, Peterson and Co., 1957), pp. 87–95.
Great Britain, British Information Services, The Reunification of Germany (Swindon, U.K.: Swindon Press, 1959), p. 41.
Prittie, “Inquiry into Germany’s Future,” pp. 120-121.
New York Times, October 11, 1961.
Manchester Guardian, October 19, 1961; and Prittie, “Inquiry into Germany’s Future,” pp. 1 and 120.
Washington Post, November 10, 1961.
Constantine Brown, “Epoch-Making European Meeting,” Washington Star, August 7, 1962, p. An.
France, Press and Information Service, President de Gaulle Holds Fifth Press Conference, September 5, 1961 (New York, 1961), pp. 2-3.
France, Press and Information Service, Statement by French Foreign Minister Couve de Murville before the Senate on December 5, 1961: The Berlin Question (New York, 1961), p. 3.
France, Press and Information Service, Address Delivered by General de Gaulle, President of the French Republic, over French Radio and Television on October 2, I96I (New York, 1961), P. 3.
Walter Lippmann, “On Negotiating About Berlin,” Washington Post, September 12, 1961.
On October 23, 1954, the Saar was given a European Statute which placed the region under international control. A year later the Saarlanders were permitted to decide by plebiscite whether they would retain this status or return to Germany. They chose to return; and on January 1, 1957, the Saar became German again. See Great Britain, Cmd. 9306 as quoted as “Agreement between the Governments of the Federal Republic and the French Republic on the Saar Statute,” Beate Ruhm von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, 1945–1954, Royal Institute of International Affairs (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955), p. 609; Jacques Freymond, The Saar Conflict, 1945–1955 (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1960), pp. 195-201; and George R. Moe, Principal Political Developments Affecting the Status of the Saar Region, 1945–1957 (Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Government and Politics, University of Maryland, 1959), pp. 70-84.
Drew Middleton, “Allies Still Far Apart on Berlin Policy,” New York Times, November 19, 1961, p. E5.
“General de Gaulle’s Statement and Answers to Questions at News Conference, March 25, 1959,” New York Times, March 26, 1959. The next day the West German government made public its objections to the French President’s attitude toward the Oder-Neisse Line. See New York Times, March 27, 1959.
“N.S. Khrushchev’s Moscow Radio and Television Speech on His Meeting and Talks with John F. Kennedy in Vienna, June 3 and 4, 1961,” The Soviet Stand on Germany, p. 31.
Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960), pp 157-158; and Dallin, pp. 171–179.
Brzezinski, p. 308.
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, November 29, 1961; and Washington Post, November 29, 1961.
Washington Post, September 16, 1961.
Baltimore Sun, December 3, 1961.
Although the Council for Economic Mutual Assistance was organized in 1949 and East Germany joined in 1950, the political potentialities of the organization were not developed by Stalin, but by Khrushchev. See Brzezinski, pp. 127n, 172, 284-285.
Ray Vicker, “East German Economy Suffers as It Is Tied Closer to Russian Bloc,” Wall Street Journal, December 12, 1961, p. 1.
R. V. Burks, The Dynamics of Communism in Eastern Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1961), pp. 131–140.
Elmer Plischke, Contemporary Government of Germany (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961), pp. 159–151. Typical of the Polish attitude toward the expellee political movement is Tadeusz Derlatka, Andrzej Lesniewski, and Roman Nurowski, German Revisionism on the Move (Warsaw: Zachodnia Agencja Prasowa, Journalists’ Cooperative, 1960).
Poland, Embassy of the Polish People’s Republic, Press Office, The Polish-German Boundary (Washington, 1960), p. 2; and Franz Thedieck, “Settlement of Boundaries by Peace Treaty,” After Ten Years: A European Problem: Still No Solution, ed. Wolfgang Steinbichl, Wolfgang Eschmann, and Rudolf Stahl (Frankfurt/Main: Wirtschaftsdienst Verlag und Druckerei G.m.b.H., 1957), p. 21.
“Charter of the German Expellees,” ibid., p. 10.
P. Steiniger, “On the So-called ‘Right to the Homeland,’” International Affairs (Moscow), July, 1961, pp. 66-67.
After the recall of the West German ambassador in Moscow, Dr. Hans Kroll, on March 9, 1962, Warsaw displayed signs of obvious relief. Kroll is generally considered an advocate of a Soviet-West German understanding, which the Poles felt would only lead to greater pressure for revision of the Oder-Neisse Line. See New York Times, March 10 and 18, 1962.
W. W. Schuetz, “German Foreign Policy: Foundations in the West-Aims in the East,” International Affairs (London), Vol. 35 (July, 1959), p. 311.
Walter Lippmann, “Kennedy and Adenauer,” Washington Post, October 31, 1961.
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Wolfe, J.H. (1963). Germany and East-West Coexistence 1955–1962. In: Indivisible Germany. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-9199-9_5
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