Abstract
Rivalry with the French and fear of the expanding power of America in China drove the British to annex the remaining territories of the Kingdom of Burma in November 1885.
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References
Thibaw’s family included his two queens and two daughters; his staff consisted of six officers and seventeen attendants (‘An Episode of Burma’s History in India,’ an article by U Hla in the Ludu daily newspaper, in Burmese, January 4, 1958)
Premier U Nu is fond of remembering this incident in his speeches for national unity, e.g. his speech in the Provisional Parliament, congratulating the election of the Sawbwa of Yawnghwe (the son of the Sawbwa in the incident) as Speaker. Parliamentary Proceedings, vol. III. No. 9, page 389.
Burmese Sketches, Taw Sein Ko, Rangoon, 1913, pp. 46–47.
See appendix I.
Burma Laws Act (1898), s. 13.
Public Administration in Burma, F.S.V. Donnison, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1953.
Burmese Sketches, Taw Sein Ko, pp. 49–50.
e.g. The Passing of Empire, London, 1913; The Inward Light, MacMillan, 1917.
e.g. Trials in Burma, Faber & Faber, 1937; The Journey Outward, Faber & Faber, 1952.
Into Hidden Burma, Collis, Faber & Faber, 1953, p. 35.
Prof. G. H. Luce is special professor in oriental history at the University of Rangoon; his Burmese wife, Daw Tee Tee Luce, runs a ‘boys’ home.’ Furnivall died in Cambridge, England, in July, 1960.
The author met Khup Lian at his village in April, 1957. He was then old and bent double, but he still climbed the mountains easily, and his memory was clear.
The ‘five enemies’ are: floods, fire; Government or Ruler; thieves; malicious persons.
Shikoe is the posture and gesture of great respect; one sits on one’s knee or prostrate, with hands clasped as in prayer.
‘The Minds begin to Move’ was the theme of ‘K,’ the popular pen-name of U Khin Zaw, describing these times in his ‘Burma in My Life-time,’ which was serialised in the Guardian magazine from February, 1956.
Reliable accounts of the YMBA-GCBA period in Burma’s Political History, a book in Burmese, written by U Ba Khine, a leader of the Fabian party, and published in 1937; in a series of articles under the same title, written by U Lay Maung, politician and journalist, now Assistant Director of Religious Affairs, and published by the Bamakhit Burmese language daily newspaper between 16th. June, and 29th. September, 1956; in Encyclopaedia Burmanica, vol. 2, and World Affairs-Half a Century, 3 volumes, published by the Burma Translation Society in Burmese, 1956: Political Memoirs, by Thein Pe Myint, published by Shwepyidan Publishers, Rangoon, in Burmese, 1956; ‘The Development of Political Parties in Burma/ by ‘Deedok’ U Ba Choe, published in a series of articles in the English-language Burmese Review in its first and last year, 1945-46.
Sir Arthur Eggar was also Professor of Law at the University of Rangoon till his retirement in 1938. He was awarded the LL. D. degree honoris causa, and came to receive the diploma from Premier U Nu, Chancellor of the University of Rangoon, at the Convocation ceremony held in December, 1957. He wrote and published a series of volumes on the Laws of India and Burma, and also compiled the ‘Burma Code’ of laws. Sir Arthur died in May, 1958.
Gaungbaung is the headgear of Burmese males worn indoors and out, a mark of rank and respect and formality.
In the ‘Dawn of Nationalism in Burma,’ an article in the Journal of the Burma Research Society, April, 1950, by J. S. Furnivall, reproducing extracts of a lecture by U May Oung in the early YMBA days.
Report of the Joint Select Committee, London, 1934, 247.
From 40 to 60 percent of the members were Government officers and staff, according to U Pu whom the author interviewed on November 30, 1957.
An obituary of Sir J. A. Maung Gyi, by Nyo Mya, editor of the ‘Oway’ Burmese daily newspaper, appears in the Guardian magazine, April, 1955.
Profile of U Thein Maung, Guardian magazine, September, 1955.
In a condolence motion in the Chamber of Deputies U Khant (Pantanaw) gave a life sketch of U Chit Hlaing, and, incidentally, of the GCBA movement. Parliamentary Proceedings, Deputies, vol. 3 No. 2, February 24, 1953, PP.145-154. Proceedings are all in Burmese now.
‘The policy of His Majesty’s Government, with which the Government of India are in complete accord, is that of the increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.’ The reform schemes which were drafted in accordance with this policy became popularly known as the ‘Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms’ after Mr. Montagu, Secretary of State for India, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy in India.
Sir Reginald attributed this liberal policy of the British Prime Minister Lord Curzon to ‘an extraordinary temporary lapse of an otherwise brilliant brain.’ The Indian Dilemma by Sir Reginald Craddock, London, 1930, quoted by John L. Christian in his valuable book, Burma and the Japanese Invader, Thackers, Bombay, 1945.
An account of U Ottama and his times appears in the condolence motion and speech made by U Khant (Pantanaw) in the Chamber of Deputies, and the supporting speeches. Chamber of Deputies, vol. 4 No. 16, September 9, 1953, PP. 1451-1464. There is also a biography of U Ottama in Burmese by U Soe Maung, editor of the New Light of Burma, published by Samameitta Publishers, Rangoon, 1956.
The Secretary of the GCB A in its first year was U Thin Maung; U Htoon Aung Gyaw was Treasurer; Executive Committee members were U Maung Maung Ohn Ghine, U Ba Hlaing, U Ba Si, U Pu (Tharrawaddy), U Thein Maung, U Maung Gyee, U Tun Wai, U Aye Maung, and U Pu, barrister.
‘Our National Day’ by ‘Deedok’ U Ba Choe, first published in the Rangoon Review, reproduced in the Guardian magazine, December, 1953.
Better-known as Thakin Kodaw Hmaing, the Grand Old Man of Letters and Politics, winner of the Stalin Peace Prize.
Author and educationist, presently Burma’s Permanent Representative at the United Nations.
‘Burma Legislative Council,’ byUBa Dun, in Burma Yearbook and Directory, Rangoon, 1930.
Speech by Sir Harcourt Butler to young officers at Meiktila, 11th. August, 1926, Collection of Speeches, Government Press, Rangoon, 1927
Collection of Speeches, p. 146.
Ibid., pp. 159-60.
A Minister’s salary was Rs 5000 (1 rupee = 1. s. 6 d.) per month, which was a princely-salary. Ministers became known as ‘Eaters of Five Thousand.’
The ‘Twenty-One’ were U Ba Pe, U Pu (barrister), ‘M. A.’ U Maung Gyee, U Thein Maung, U Maung Gyi (New Light of Burma), U Sein, U Thin Maung, U Kun, Dr. Ba Yin, U Ba Hlaing, Dr. Thein Maung, U Hla Pe, U Maung Maung Ohn Ghine, U Ba Si, U San Lin, U Ba U, U Lun Maung, U Sein Ba, U Maung Gyi, and U Thaw.
Speech by U Pu, Burma Round Table Conference, Proceedings, Government Press, Rangoon, 1932, p. 53.
Ibid., p. 78.
In the dyarchical scheme the line of Ministers for Education which followed were: Dr. Ba Yin, U Ba Tin, barrister, U Kyaw Din, barrister, and Dr. Ba Maw, barrister; of Ministers for Forests: Sir Lee Ah Yain (two terms), barrister, Sir J. A. Maung Gyi, and U Ba Pe.
Two candidates were put forward, U Ba Pe, member for East Rangoon who won, obtaining 46 votes, and U Ba Dun, member for West Rangoon, who obtained 24 votes. Burma Legislative Council, Proceedings, vol. I. 1923, pp. 51-52.
Eg. Government’s statement that the Rangoon Cantonment, including areas adjoining the Shwedagon would be placed by the Government of India in the charge of the Local Government on terms involving the construction of a new cantonment at Mingladon (which was estimated to take 5 years) and the arsenal on the Pagoda could then be moved out. Ibid. p. 50.
Collection of Speeches, Sir Harcourt Butler, p. 155.
Views of Local Governments on the Recommendations of the Indian Statutory Commission, 1930, Calcutta, Government of India Press, 1930, p. 306.
Report of the Rebellion in Burma up to 3rd. May 1931 HMSO, London, Cmd. 3900.
‘Galon’ is the symbol of victory over the ‘Naga.’ The Naga represents foreigners such as the English, the French, the Italians and the Russians. It is said that if a man has a ‘galon’ tattoo mark on him he becomes invulnerable, and the shot fired at him becomes coloured flour.’ Statement by a prosecution witness at one of the trials; Aung Hla vs. King Emperor, Indian Law Reports, Rangoon series, vol. IX, p. 417.
The Government’s first motion of the Bill was lost by 39 votes to 41. The Bill was passed on subsequent motions after heated debates. Legislative Council, Proceedings, vol. XX-1, 1931, pp. 55-75.
Minister under the Japanese occupation, now back in law practice.
Legislative Assembly, Debates, vol. I., 1931, pp. 796–834, Government of India Press, New Delhi.
Legislative Assembly, Debates, vol. III., 1931, 2082–2122.
Retold by Sir Arthur Eggar to the author.
Legislative Assembly, Debates, vol III, 1931, 2082–2122.
Burma Round Table Conference, Proceedings, Government Press, Rangoon, 1932, p. 1.
Members of the Burma delegation were: the Sawbwa of Hsipaw, the Sawbwa of Yaunghwe, Sra Shwe Ba, Mr. C. H. Campagnac, Mr. N. M. Cowasjee, Mr. M. M. Ohn Ghine, Sir Oscar de Glanville, U Tun Aung Gyaw, U Maung Gyee, Mr. S. N. Haji, Mr. K. B. Harper, U Chit Hlaing, Mr. R. B. Howison, Dr. Thein Maung, U Tharra-waddy Maung Maung, Mr. Sydney Loo-Nee, U Ni, Miss May Oung, U Ba Pe, Tharrawaddy U Pu, Mr. Hoe Kim Seing, U Ba Si, U Su, and U Aung Thin. The Sawbwa of North Hsenwi, and the Kyemmong of Kengtung were advisors to the Shans.
Burma Round Table Conference, Proceedings, p. 39. Miss May Oung (Daw Mya Sein) is a lecturer in history at the University of Rangoon, and a prominent social worker.
The young Sawbwa of Yaunghwe became the first President of the Union of Burma, and Speaker, Chamber of Nationalities.
‘The primary task of the Burma Conference will be to discuss the lines of a constitution for a separated Burma.’ Announcement, dated August 20, 1931. Proceedings, p. 9.
Burma Round Table Conference, Proceedings of the Committee of the Whole Conference, p. 177, Government Press, Rangoon, 1932.
The delegates from Burma were U Ba Pe, U Thein Maung, U Chit Hlaing, Dr. Ba Maw, Mr. Tyabji, Dr. Daw Saw Sa, Saya Shwe Ba, Mr. Campagnac, Mr. Haji, Mr. Dawoodji, Mr. Harper, and U Shwe Tha.
Joint Committee on Indian Constitutional Reform, Report, vol. I p. 249; HMSO, London, 1934.
ss. 59, 122, Government of Burma Act, 1935.
See profile of U Ba Swe in the Guardian magazine, March, 1956.
U Nu’s condolence motion in the Constituent Assembly on the assassination of Aung San and other leaders, gives sketches of the leaders, the 1936 strike and the thakin movement; Constituent Assembly, Proceedings, vol. II. No. 1., pp. 8-24.
who happened to be Nyo Mya, now editor of the ‘Oway’ Burmese daily newspaper.
Accounts of the strike appear in the following profiles published in the Guardian magazine: U Nu, May, 1955; Mr. M. A. Raschid, December, 1956: U Kyaw Nyein, March, 1955; U Ba Swe, March, 1956; Bo Khin Maung Gale, July 1954; U Tun Win, October, 1955; U Hla Maung, July, 1955; U Nyo Mya, October, 1958.
U Ohn, Burma’s first Ambassador to Moscow, is now Advisor to the Prime Minister, U Nu. U Tun On was Commissioner, Rangoon Corporation; U Thi Han is Director of Military Supplies. Ma Ah Mar married U Hla, and they run the Ludu daily newspaper in Mandalay; Ma Khin Mya is now a lecturer in the Education Faculty of the of the University of Rangoon; Yi Yi took her advanced degree in teaching in the United States, and is married to an Army major.
A brief autobiography of Aung San appeared in the Bamakhit Burmese daily newspaper, August 1, 1943, which celebrated Burma’s independence under the Japanese, and also in Burma’s Challenge, in English, by Aung San, which was prepared for publication in 1946, but did not get beyond a few mimeographed copies for private circulation.
Profile of Dr. Ba Maw, Guardian magazine, August, 1954.
The Committee of which Justice H. B. L. Braund was chairman and U Po Han, Mr. A. Rahim, U Khin Maung Dwe and Dr. M. A. Rauf were members, submitted its Report, on February 27, 1939; Government Press, Rangoon, 1939.
Forces leading to the unrest among the oilfield workers and peasants are analysed in Burma’s Revolution, in Burmese, written by Thakin Soe, who is now a Communist leader in insurrection, and published in Rangoon in 1939.
Ba Hein became a Communist leader, and died on the eve of Burma’s independence.
Hla Shwe became celebrated as a students’ leader, and ‘Dictator.’ He later left the movement and took a degree in medicine; in 1948, on his way to America for advanced studies he died in an aircrash. His brother is Thakin Hla Pe, ‘Bo Letya.’
The Committee of which Justice Ba U was chairman and Senator U (later Sir) Thwin, and U Sein Tun Aung were members, reported in July, 1939, with U Sein Tun Aung tendering a note of dissent. The Committee found that ‘the police had no justification whatsoever in charging the students in Sparks Street; and their conduct, to say the least, is unmanly and most reprehensible.’ Report, Government Press, Rangoon, 1939.
The author, then a student in the Intermediate College, Mandalay, was one of those whom the monks ‘persuaded’ to sacrifice the western style hair-cut and be cleanshaven. The author found the cane which one monk had in his hand even more persuasive than the argument, and readily gave in. That was the mood of the times.
A Government reply to a question revealed that there were only 159 Burmans, 3040 other indigenous races, 1423 Indians and 1587 British soldiers in the Burma Army shortly before the outbreak of World War II, and of officers there were 4 Burmans, 75 indigenous races, 36 Indians and 163 British. House of Representatives, Proceedings, vol. III. 1938 p. 431.
U Ohn Khin is now proprietor of the Bamakhit Burmese daily newspaper. Thakin Than Tun, top Communist leader, is in armed rising against the Government (profile of Thakin Than Tun, Guardian magazine, October, 1956).
Saya Tun Shwe was cast in jail for sedition, taken out in India on British evacuation in 1942, and died in jail there.
The goodwill mission, 1939, was composed of Daw Mya Sein, U Ba Lwin, Mr. S. T. Leong, barrister, Thakin Nu, and others.
Burma’s Challenge, Aung San.
Ministers in U Saw’s Cabinet were: Sir Paw Tun, Tharrawaddy U Maung Maung, U Aye, U Ba Than, Saw Pe Tha, U Ba Thi, U Ba Yin, and U Ba On.
The Second World War, Winston S. Churchill, vol. III. 727. Cassell, London, 1950.
‘Journey Perilous’ was the title of a series of articles written by U Saw in the Burmese Review, weekly English journal, published by U Tin Tut, 1946-47.
The author was Thein Pe; U Nyana, another well-known writer and playwright, said to Thein Pe: ‘Either you must have written it, or I, for there are only two of us in Burma who are capable of such genius.’ Thein Pe admitted the authorship then.
The Times, London, October 17, 1941.
The Times, October 30, 1941.
The Times, October 23, 1941.
The Times, November 5, 1941.
Hansard, vol. 376, p. 884. House of Commons.
The Times, November 4, 1941.
By Proclamation dated December 10, 1942.
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© 1961 Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands
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Maung, M. (1961). Annexation and British Rule. In: Burma’s Constitution. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-8892-0_1
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