Skip to main content

Leishmaniasis and Trypanosomiasis

  • Chapter

Abstract

Leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are separate groups of arthropodborne diseases of humans and other animals caused by infection with protozoan hemoflagellates of the genus Leishmania and Trypanosoma, respectively. Both genera are included in the family Trypanosomatidae, order Kinetoplastida (Fig. 8.1).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abonnenc, E. 1972. Le phlebotomes de la Region Ethiopienne (Diptera: Psychodidae). Mem. ORSTOM 55:1–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adler, S. 1947. The behavior of a Sudan strain of Leishmania donovani in Phlebotomus papatasii. A comparison of strains of Leishmania. Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 40:701–712.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adler, S. and Theodor, O. 1939. The behavior of Leishmania chagasi in Phlebotomus papatasii. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 33:45–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, J.B. 1987. Dispersal of phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a Colombian coffee plantation. J. Med. Entomol. 24:552–558.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, D.C., Buckner, R.G., Glenn, B.L. and MacVean, D.W. 1980. Endemic canine leishmaniasis. Vet. Pathol. 17:94–96.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barral, A., Pedral-Sampaio, D., Grimaldi, G., Jr., Momen, H., McMahon-Pratt, D., DeJesus, A.R., Almeida, R., Badaro, R., Barral-Netto, M., Carvalho, E.M. and Johnson, W.D., Jr. 1991. Leishmaniasis in Bahia, Brazil: evidence that Leishmania amazonensis produces a wide spectrum of clinical disease. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 44:536–546.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beach, R., Kiilu, G. and Leeuwenburg, J. 1985. Modification of sand fly biting behavior by Leishmania leads to increased parasitic transmission. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34:278–282.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benenson, A.S. 1990. Control of communicable diseases in man, 15th ed, Washington, D.C. 532 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bista, M.B., Shrestha, K. and Devotka, U.N. 1993. Gasteroenteritis, encephalitis, meningitis and kala-azar: an epidemiological review. Epidemiology Division, Ministry of Health, Kathmandu, Nepal. 70 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borovsky, D. and Schlein, Y. 1987. Trypsin and chymot-rypsin-like enzymes of the sandfly Phlebotomus papatasi infected with Leishmania and their possible role in vector competence. Med. Vet. Entomol. 1:235–242.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brady, J. 1972. The visual responsiveness of the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans West. (Glossinidae) to moving objects: the effects of hunger, sex, host odour and stimulus characteristics. Bull. Entomol. Res. 62:257–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brun, R., Berens, R.L. and Krassner, S.M. 1976. Inhibition of Leishmania donovani transformation by hamster spleen homogenates and active human lymphocytes. Nature 262:689–691.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buescher, M.D., Rutledge, L.C., Roberts, J. and Nelson, J.H. 1984. Observations of multiple feedings of Lutzomyia longipalpis in the laboratory (Diptera: Psychodidae). Mosq. News 44:76–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgdorfer, W., Schmidt, M.L. and Hoogstraal, H. 1973. Detection of Trypanosoma theileri in Ethopian cattle ticks. Acta Trop. 30:340–346.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bursell, E., Berridge, M.J. and Freeman, J.C. 1973. The penetration of the peritrophic membrane of the tsetse flies by trypanosomes. Acta Trop. 30:347–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carcavallo, R.U. 1987. The subfamily Triatominae (Hemiptera: Reduviidae): systematics and some ecological factors. Pp. 1–39 in R.R. Brenner (ed.), Chagas’ disease vectors, Vol. 1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrasco, H.J., Frame, I.A., Valente, S.A. and Miles, M.A. 1996. Genetic exchange as a possible source of genomic diversity in sylvatic populations of Trypanosoma cruzi. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 54:418–424.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaniotis, B.H. 1986. Successful colonization of the sandfly Lutzomyia trapidoi (Diptera: Psychodidae) with enhancement of its gonotrophic activity. J. Med. Entomol. 23:163–166.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaniotis, B.H., Correa, M.A., Tesh, R.B. and Johnson, K.J. 1974. Horizontal and vertical movements of phlebotomine sandflies in a Panamanian rain forest. J. Med. Entomol. 11:369–375.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chippaux, J.P., Pajot, F.X. and Barbier, D. 1984. Leishmaniasis in French Guinea. 5. Fuller data on the ecology of the vector in the cacao forest village. Cah. ORSTOM Ser. Entomol. Med. Parasitol. 22:313–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, H.A., Fairchild, G.B., Herrer, A., Johnson, C.M., Young, D.G. and de Vasques, A.M. 1983. The ecology of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Republic of Panama. J. Med. Entomol. 20:463–484.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colvin, J. and Gibson, G. 1992. Host-seeking behavior and management of tsetse. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 37:21–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desjeux, P. 1996. Leishmaniasis, public health aspects and control. Clinic. Dermatol. 14:417–423.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dipeolu, O.O. and Adam, K.M.G. 1974. On the use of membrane feeding to study the development of Trypanosoma brucei in Glossina. Acta Trop. 31:185–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Disney, R.H.L. 1966. A trap for phlebotomine sandflies attracted to rats. Bull. Entomol. Res. 56:445–451.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elnaiem, D.A. and Ward, R.D. 1990. An oviposition pheromone on the eggs of sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae). Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 84:456–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elnaiem, D.A. and Ward, R.D. 1991. Response of sandfly Lu. longipalpis to an oviposition pheromone associated with conspecific eggs. Med. Vet. Entomol. 5:87–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elsen, P., Amoudi, M.A. and Leclerqc, M. 1990. First record of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes Newstead, 1910 and Glossina morsitans submorsitans Newstead 1910 in southwestern Saudi Arabia. Ann. Soc. Belg. Med. Trop. 70:281–287.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Endris, R.G., Young, D.G. and Perkins, P.V. 1987. Ultrastructural comparison of egg surface morphology of five Lutzomyia species (Diptera: Psychodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 24:412–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairchild, G.B. and Hertig, M. 1947. Notes on the Phlebotomus of Panama (Diptera: Psychodidae). II. Descriptions of three species. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 40:617–622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forattini, O.P. 1973. Entomologia medica. Vol. 4, Psychodidae, Phlebotominae, Leishmanoses, Bartonelose. Edgard Blucher, Sao Paulo. 658 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. and Katondo, K.M. 1977. Maps of tsetse fly (Glossina) distribution in Africa, 1973, according to subgeneric groups on scale 1:5,000,000. Bull. Anim. Hlth. Prod. Africa 15:187–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, W.A., Tesfa-Yohannes, T.M. and Teckle, T. 1970. Studies on leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. II. Laboratory culture and biology of Phlebotomus longipes (Diptera: Psychodidae). Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 64:403–409.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, B. 1973. Flies and disease. Vol. 2, Biology and disease transmission. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 447 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurtler, R.E., Schweigmann, N.J., Cecere, M.C., Chuit, R. and Wisnevesky-Colli, C. 1993. Comparison of two sampling methods for domestic populations of Triatoma infestans in north-west Argentina. Med. Vet. Entomol. 7:238–242.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, W.J. 1961. The breeding places of Phlebotomus in Panama (Diptera: Psychodidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 54:317–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoare, C.A. 1972. The trypanosomes of mammals: a zoological monograph. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK. 749 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenni, L., Marti, S., Schweizer, J., Betschart, B., LePage, R.W.F., Wells, J.M., Tait, A., Paindavoine, P., Pays, E. and Steinert, M. 1986. Hybrid formation between African trypanosomes during cyclical transmission. Nature 322:173–175.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jobling, B. and Lewis, D.J. 1987. Anatomical drawings of biting flies. British Museum of Natural History and Wellcome Foundation, London, UK. 119 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, P.T. 1961. Autogeny in Panamanian Phlebotomus sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 54:116–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, P.T., McConnell, E. and Hertig, M. 1963. Natural infections of leptomonad flagellates in Panamanian Phlebotomus sandflies. Exp. Parasitol. 14:107–122.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, A.M. 1986. Trypanosomiasis control and African rural development. Longman, London and New York. 357 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, A.M. 1993. Tsetse-flies (Glossinidae). Pp. 333–388 in R.P. Lane and R.W. Crosskey (eds.), Medical insects and arachnids. Chapman and Hall, London.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Joshi, D.D., Shrestha, J.D., Pradhan, S.P. and Joshi, A.B. 1990. Kala-azar in Morang District: epidemiological situation. J. Instit. Med. (India) 12:205–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kettle, D.S. 1994. Medical and veterinary entomology, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 725 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kettle, D.S. 1995. Trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis in medical and veterinary entomology, 2nd ed. CAB International, Wellingford, UK. 725 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. 1979. Biology of Leishmania in phlebotomine sandflies. Pp. 395–460 in W.H.R. Lumsden and D.A. Evans (eds.), Biology of the Kinetoplastida, Vol. 2. Academic Press, London, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. 1985. Some epidemiological consequences of the evolutionary fit between leishmaniae and their phlebotomine vectors. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 78:747–755.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. 1987. Appendix II: methods for the study of phlebotomine sandflies. Pp. 473–497 in W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (eds.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine, Vol. 1, Biology and epidemiology. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. 1990a. Phlebotomine vectors of leishmaniasis: a review. Med. Vet. Entomol. 4:1–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. 1990b. The life-cycle of Leishmania in the sandfly with special reference to the form infective to the vertebrate host. Ann. Parasitiol. Hum. Comp. 65:37–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. 1999. The biology and control of phlebotomine sand flies. Clinics in Dermatology. 17: 279–289.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. and Killick-Kendrick, M. 1987a. Honeydew of aphids as a source of sugar for Phlebotomus ariasi. Med. Vet. Entomol. 1:297–302.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. and Killick-Kendrick, M. 1987b. The laboratory colonization of Phlebotomus ariasi (Diptera: Psychodidae). Ann. Parasitiol. Hum. Comp. 62:354–356.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R., Killick-Kendrick, M., Focheux, C., Dereure, J., Puech, M-P., and Cadiergues, M.C. 1997. Protection of dogs from bites of phlebotomine sand flies by deltamethrin collars for control of canine leishmaniasis. Med. Vet. Entomol. 11:105–111.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R., Molyneux, D.H. and Ashford, R.W. 1974. Leishmania in phlebotomid sandflies. I. Modifications of the flagellum associated with attachment to the mid-gut and oesophageal valve of the sandfly. Proc. Roy. Soc. Entomol. (B) 187:409–419.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R., Molyneux, D.H., Leaney, A.J. and Rioux, J.A. 1979. Aspects of the life-cycle of Leishmania in the sandfly. Pp. 89–95 in Association of Yugoslav Parasitologists (ed.), Proceedings of the Second European Multicolloquy of Parasitology. Prosveta, Belgrade, Yugoslavia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R., Ready, P.D. and Pampiglione, S. 1977. Notes on the prevalence and host preferences of Phlebotomus perfiliewi. Ecologie des Leishmanioses, Colloques Internationaux du C.N.R.S. 239:169–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick-Kendrick, R. and Ward, R.D. 1981. Ecology of the Leishmania. Parasitol. 82:143–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lainson, R. 1982. Leishmaniasis. Pp. 41–103 in J.H. Steele (ed.), CRC Handbook Series in Zoonoses, Vol. 1. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lainson, R. 1983. The American leishmaniases: some observations on their ecology and epidemiology. Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 77:569–596.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lainson, R. and Shaw, J.J. 1987. Evolution, classification and geographic distribution. Pp. 1–120 in W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (eds.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine, Vol. 1, Biology and epidemiology. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, R.P. 1993. Sandflies (Phlebotominae). Pp. 78–119 in R.P. Lane and R.W. Crosskey (eds.), Medical insects and arachnids. Chapman and Hall, London.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, R.P. and Crosskey, R.W. (eds.) 1993. Medical insects and arachnids. Chapman and Hall, London. 723 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, R.P. and Ready, P.D. 1985. Multivariate discrimination between Lutzomyia welcomei, a vector of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis, and Lu. complexus (Diptera: Phlebotominae). Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 79:225–229.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawyer, P.G. 1984. Biology and colonization of the sand fly Lutzomyia diabolica (Hall) (Diptera: Psychodidae) with notes on its potential relationship to human cutaneous leishmaniasis in Texas, USA. Ph.D. thesis. University of Florida, Gainesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawyer, P.G., Ngumbi, P.N., Anjili, C.O., Odongo, S.O., Mebrahtu, Y.B., Githure, J.I., Koech, D.K. and Roberts, C.R. 1990. Development of Leishmania major in Phlebotomus duboscqi and Sergentomyia schwetzi (Diptem: Psychodidae). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 43:31–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawyer, P.G. and Young, D.G. 1991. Diapause and quiescence in Lutzomyia diabolica (Diptera: Psychodidae). Pp. 353–360 in M. Maroli (ed.), First International Symposium on Phlebotomine Sandflies, Vol. 33(1, Suppl.). Parrasitologia, Rome.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawyer, P.G., Young, D.G., Butler, J.F. and Akin, D.E. 1987. Development of Leishmania mexianca in Lutzomyia diabolica and Lutzomyia shannoni (Diptera: Psychodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 24:347–355.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leng, Y.J. 1987. A preliminary survey of phlebotomine sandflies in limestone caves of Sichuan and Guizhou Provinces, south-west China, and description and discussion of a primitive new genus Chinius. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 81:311–317.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lent, H. and Wygodzinsky, P. 1979. Revision of the Triatominae (Hemiptera, Reduviidae), and their significance as vectors of Chagas’ disease. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 163:123–520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, D.J. 1982. A taxonomic review of the genus Phlebotomus (Diptera: Psychodidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Ent.) 45:121–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, D.J. and Domoney, C.R. 1966. Sugar meals in Phlebotominae and Simuliidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. Entomol. (B) 41:175–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, D.J., Young, D.G., Fairchild, G.B. and Minter, D.M. 1977. Proposals for a stable classification of phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae). Syst. Entomol. 2:319–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lysenko, A.J. and Beljaev, A.E. 1987. Quantitative approaches to epidemiology. Pp. 263–290 in W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (eds.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine, Vol. 1, Biology and epidemiology. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magill, A.J. 1995. Epidemiology of the leishmaniases. Clinic. Dermatol. 13:505–523.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Magill, M.D., Grogi, M., Gasser, R.A., Jr., Sun, W. and Oster, C.N. 1993. Viscerotropic leishmaniassis caused by Leishmania tropica in soldiers returning from Operation Desert Storm. New England J. Med. 328:1383–1387.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McConville, M.J. and Homans, S.W. 1992. Identification of the defect in lipophosphoglycan biosynthesis in a non-pathogenic strain of Leishmania major. J. Biol. Chem. 267:5855–5861.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mebrahtu, Y., Lawyer, P., Githure, J., Were, J.B., Muigai, R., Hendricks, L., Leeuwenburg, J., Koech, D. and Roberts, C. 1989. Visceral leishmaniasis unresponsive to Pentostam caused by Leishmania tropica in Kenya. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 41:289–294.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mebrahtu, Y.B., Beach, R.F., Lawyer, P.G. and Perkins, P.V. 1996. The blood-feeding behavior of Phlebotomus martini (Diptera: Psychodidae): is it a question of photoperiodism or circadian rhythm? Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 90:665–668.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mebrahtu, Y.B., Lawyer, P.G., Ngumbi, P.M., Kirigi, G., Mbugua, J.K., Gachihi, G., Wasunna, K., Pamba, H., Sherwood, J.A., Koech, D.K. and Roberts, C.R. 1992. A new rural focus of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania tropica in Kenya. Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 86:381–387.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Minter, D.M. 1989. Geographical distribution of arthropod-borne diseases and their principal vectors. 134 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mlot, C. 1997. Insect-borne disease: curing the carrier. Science News 151:223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molyneux, D.H. 1977. Vector relationships in the Trypanosomatidae. Adv. Parasitol. 15:1–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Molyneux, D.H. and Ashford, R.W. 1983. The biology of the Trypanosoma and Leishmania, parasites of man and domestic animals. Taylor and Francis, Inc., New York. 294 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, A.C., Ferro, C., Morales, A., Tesh, R.B. and Wilson, M.L. 1993. Dispersal of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) at an endemic focus of visceral leishmaniasis in Colombia. J. Med. Entomol. 30:427–435.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee, S., Hassan, M.Q., Ghosh, A., Ghosh, K.N., Bhattacharya, A. and Adhya, S. 1997. Short Report: Leishmania DNA in Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia species during a kala-azar epidemic. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 57:423–425.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, M. and Urquhart, G.M. 1977. Immunoprophylaxis against African trypanosomiasis. Pp. 209–241 in L.H. Miller, J.Ä. Pino and J.J. McKelvey, Jr. (eds.), Immunity to blood parasites of animals and man. Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perich, M.J., Hoch, A.L., Rizzo, N. and Rowton, E.D. 1995. Insecticide barrier spraying for the control of sand fly vectors of cutaneous leishmaniasis in rural Guatemala. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 52:485–488.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, P.V., Githure, J.I., Mebrahtu, Y., Kiilu, G., Ngumbi, P.S., Nzovu, J., Oster, C.N., Whitmire, R.E., Leeuwenburg, J., Hendricks, L.S. and Koech, D.K. 1988. Isolation of Leishmania donovani from Phlebotomus maritim in Baringo District, Kenya. Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 82:695–700.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, W. and Killick-Kendrick, R. (eds). 1987. The leishmaniases in biology and medicine, Vol. 2, Clinical aspects and control. Academic Press, New York. 941 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimenta, P., Saraiva, E., Rowton, E., Modi, G., Cilmi, S., Beverly, S. and Sacks, D. 1994. The vectorial competence of phlebotomine sand flies for different species of Leishmania is controlled by structural polymorphisms in the surface lipophosphoglycan. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 91:9155–9156.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pimenta, P.F.P., Turco, S.J., McConville, M.J., Lawyer, P.G., Perkins, P.V. and Sacks, D.L. 1992. Stage-specific adhesion of Leishmania promastigotes to sandfly midgut. Science 256:1813–1815.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quate, L.W. 1964. Phlebotomus sandflies of the Paloich Area in the Sudan (Diptera, Psychodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 1:213–268.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quate, L.W. and Vockeroth, J.R. 1981. Psychodidae. Pp. 293–300 in J.R McAlpine, B.V. Peterson, G.E. Shewell, H.J. Teskey, J.R. Vockeroth and D.M. Wood (eds.), Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Vol. 1. Agriculture Canada, Monograph 27, Ottawa, Ontario.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ready, P.D. and da Silva, R.M.R. 1984. An alloenzymic comparison of Psychodopygyus wellcomei—an incriminated vector of Leishmania braziliensis in Para State, Brazil, and the sympatric morphospecies Ps. complexus (Diptera, Psychodidae). Cah. ORSTOM Entomol. Med. Parasitol. 22:3–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ready, P.D., Lainson, R., Shaw, J.J. and Souza, A.A. 1986. The ecology of Lutzomyia umbratilis Ward & Fraiha (Diptera; Psychodidae), the major vector to man of Leishmania braziliensis guyanensis in north-eastern Amazonian Brazil. Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 76:21–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rees, P.H. and Kager, P.A. 1987. Visceral leishmaniasis and post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Pp. 584–615 in W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (eds.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine, Vol. 2, Clinical aspects and control. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ribeiro, J.M.C, Vachereau, A., Modi, G.B. and Tesh, R.B. 1989. A novel vasodilatory peptide from the salivary glands of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis. Science 243:212–214.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rioux, J.A. and Golvan, Y.A. 1969. Epidemiologie des leishmanioses dans le sud de la France, Monograph 37. Insitut National de la Sante et de la, Recherche Medicale, Paris. 221 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rioux, J.A., Jarry, D.M., Lanotte, G., Maazoun, R. and Killick-Kendrick, R. 1984. Ecologie des leishmanioses dans le sud de la France. 18. Identification enzymatique de Leishmania infantum Nicolle, 1908, isole de Phlebotomus ariasi Tonnoir, 1921 spontanement infeste en Cevennes. Ann. Parasitiol. Hum. Comp. 59:331–333.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robert, L.L. and Perich, M.J. 1995. Phlebotomine sand fly (Diptera: Psychodidae) control using a residual pyre-throid insecticide. J. Am. Mosq. Contr. Assoc. 11:195–199.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robert, L.L., Perich, M.J., Schiein, Y., Jacobson, R.L., Wirtz, R.A., Lawyer, P.G. and Githure, J.I. 1997. Phlebotomine sand fly control using bait-fed adults to carry the larvicide Bacillus sphaericus to the larval habitat. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 13:140–144.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rutledge, L.C. and Ellenwood, D.A. 1975. Production of phlebotomine sandflies [Lutzomyia, Brumptomyia] on the open forest floor in Panama: the species complement [leishmaniasis, insect vectors, control]. Environ. Entomol. 4:71–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutledge, L.C. and Mosser, H.L. 1972. Biology of immature sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) at the bases of trees in Panama. Environ. Entomol. 4:71–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sacks, D.L. 1989. Minireview: metacyclogenesis in Leishmania promastigotes. Folia Entomol. Mexicana 69:100–103.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sacks, D.L. and Perkins, P.V. 1984. Identification of an infective stage of Leishmania promastigotes. Science 223:1417–1419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlein, Y., Borut, S. and Jacobson, R.L. 1990. Opposition diapause and other factors affecting the egg laying of Phlebotomus papatasi in the laboratory. Med. Vet. Entomol. 4:69–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlein, Y., Jacobson, R.L. and Messer, G. 1992. Leishmania infections damage the feeding mechanism of the sandfly vector and implement paarasite transmission by bite. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlein, Y., Jacobson, R.L. and Shlomai, J. 1991. Chitinase secreted by Leishmania functions in the sandfly vector. Proc. Roy. Soc. Entomol. (B) 245:121–126.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlein, Y. and Romano, H. 1986. Leishmania major and L. donovani: effects on proteolytic enzymes of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) and their possible role in adaptation to the vector. Exp. Parasitol. 62:376–380.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlein, Y. and Warburg, A. 1986. Phytophagy and the feeding cycle of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) under experimental conditions. J. Med. Entomol. 23:11–15.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlein, Y., Yuval, B. and Jacobson, R.L. 1989. Leishmaniasis in the Jordan valley: differential attraction of dispersing and breeding site populations of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) to manure and water. J. Med. Entomol. 26:411–413.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schnur, L.F., Chance, M.L., Ebert, F., Thomas, S.C. and Peters, W. 1981. The biochemical and serological taxonomy of visceralizing Leishmania. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 75:131–144.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield, C.J. and Dolling, W.R. 1993. Bedbugs and kissing-bugs (bloodsucking Hemiptera). Pp. 483–516 in R.P. Lane and R.W. Crosskey (eds.), Medical insects and arachnids. Chapman and Hall, London.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shannon, R. 1939. Methods for collecting and feeding mosquitoes in jungle yellow fever studies. Am. J. Trop. Med. 19:131–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinton, J.A. 1922. Entomological notes on field service in Waziristan. Indian J. Med. Res. 9:575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sousa, O.E. 1988. Relationship between vector species and their vectorial capacity for certain strains of T. cruzi. Revista Argentina de Microviologia 20(Suppl):63–70.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tesh, R.B. 1995. Control of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis: is it time to change strategies? Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 52:287–292.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tesh, R.B., Guzman, H. and Wilson, M.L. 1992. Transbeta-farnesene as a feeding stimulant for the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae). J. Med. Entomol. 29:226–236.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vale, G.A. 1993. Visual responses of tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) to odour-baited traps. Bull. Entomol. Res. 83:277–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vale, G.A. and Hall, D.R. 1985. The role of l-octen-3-ol, acetone and carbon dioxide in the attraction of tsetse flies, Glossina spp. (Diptera: Glossinidae), to ox odour. Bull. Entomol. Res. 79:209–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vioukuv, V.N. 1987. Control of transmission. Pp. 909–928 in W. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (eds.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine, Vol. 2, Clinical aspects and control. Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters, L.L., Irons, K.P., Modi, G.B. and Tesh, R.B. 1992. Refractory barriers in the sand fly Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) to infection with Leishmania panamensis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 46:221–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton, B.C. 1987. American cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Pp. 637–664 in E. Peters and R. Killick-Kendrick (eds.), The leishmaniases in biology and medicine, Vol. 2, Clinical aspects and control. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, R.D. 1977. The colonization of Lutzomyia flaviscutellata (Diptera: Psychodidae), a vector of Leishmania mexicana amazonensis in Brazil. J. Med. Entomol. 14:469–476.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wellde, B.T. 1989. Trypanosomiasis in the Lambwe Valley, Kenya. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 83 (Suppl.):220.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. 1986. Epidemiology and control of African trypanosomiasis. Report of a WHO expert committee. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 739. 127 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. 1990. World report on tropical diseases. Trop. Med. Hyg. News 39:73.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. 1991. Control of Chagas’ disease: report of a WHO expert committee. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 811.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. 1995. Planning overview of tropical diseases. Division of Control of Tropical Diseases, WHO, Geneva.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. 1998.Control and surveillance of African trypanosomiasis. Report of a WHO expert committee. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 881. 113 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P. 1970. Phlebotomine sandflies and leishmaniasis in British Honduras (Belize). Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 64:317–368.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Young, D.G. 1979. A review of the bloodsucking psychodid flies of Colombia (Diptera: Phlebotominae and Sycoracinae). University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 806, Gainesville. 266 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, D.G. and Duncan, M.A. 1994. Guide to the identification and geographic distribution of Lutzomyia sand flies in Mexico, the West Indies, Central and South America (Diptera: Psychodidae). Associated Publishers, American Entomological Institute, Gainesville, Florida. 881 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, D.G. and Lawyer, P.G. 1987. New World Vectors of the Leishmaniases. Pp. 29–71 in K.F. Harris (ed.), Current Topics in Vector Research, Vol. 4. Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuval, B. and Schiein, Y. 1986. Leishmaniasis in the Jordan Valley. III. Nocturnal activity of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) in relation to nutrition and ovarian development. J. Med. Entomol. 23:411–415.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zijlstra, E., El-Hassan, A., Ismael, A. and Ghalib, H.W. 1994. Endemic kala-azar in eastern Sudan: a longitudinal study on the incidence of clinical and subclinical infection and post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 51:826–836.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, J.H., Newson, H.D., Hooper, G.R. and Christensen, H.A. 1977. A comparison of egg surface structure of six anthropophilic phlebotomine sand flies (Lutzomyia) with scanning electron microscope. J. Med. Entomol. 13:574–579.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lawyer, P.G., Perkins, P.V. (2000). Leishmaniasis and Trypanosomiasis. In: Eldridge, B.F., Edman, J.D. (eds) Medical Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-6472-6_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-6472-6_8

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-6321-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-011-6472-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics