Abstract
Still, even taking into account this very important qualification, the image of science at which we have arrived cannot help astonishing us. It seems to shock us most of all, of course, when we consider the biological sciences. Would science really ever presume to use these same methods of reduction and spatial assimilation to approach, to attack those infinitely particularized beings, at once so changeable and so persistent, so distinct from what surrounds them, in short all that prodigious whole we call life?
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Notes
Henri Bouasse, ‘Physique générale,’ in De la Méthode dans les sciences, 1st series, 2nd ed. (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1910), p. 124 [1909 ed., p. 76].
Jacques Duclaux began his fine book on La Chimie de la matière vivante (3rd ed., Paris: Félix Alcan, 1910) with this frank statement: “The only really scientific way to treat the chemistry of living matter would be to write below the title, ‘Nothing is known,’ and put off the rest until a second edition, which could be published twenty or fifty years from now” (p. i).
Hans Driesch, Naturbegriffe und Natururteile (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1904), pp. 112 ff. Cf. also his The Science and Philosophy of the Organism (Aberdeen: printed for the University, 1908), 1:143.
Emanuel Rádl, Geschichte der biologischen Theorien in der Neuzeit, 2nd ed. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1913), 1:83,140,166, 270.
Claude Bernard, Leçons sur les phénomènes de la vie communs aux animaux et aux végétaux (Paris: J. B. Baillière et fils, 1878) 1:8 [Lectures on the Phenomena of Life common to Animals and Plants, Vol. 1, trans. Hebbel E. Hoff and Roger and Lucienne Guillemin (Springfield, Ill.: Charles Thomas, 1974), p. 8]. Hereafter Phénom. de la vie.
Some of his most resounding theories are summed up in Claude Bernard, Phénom. de la vie 2:433–434 [only Vol. 1 is included in the Hoff, Guillemin, Guillemin translation].
Xavier Bichat, Anatomie générale appliquée à la physiologie et à la médecine. Oeuvres (Paris, 1832), 1:vii [General Anatomy applied to Physiology and Medicine, trans. George Hayward (Boston: Richardson and Lord, 1822), 1:vii]. Hereafter Anatomie
Montaigne, Essais (Paris: Flammarion, 1908), 3:182 [The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1958), p. 578].
F. Bosc, ‘De l’inutilité du vitalisme,’ Rev. philo. 76 (1913) 375.
Jagadis Chandre Bose, ‘De la généralité des phénomènes moléculaires produits par l’électricité sur la matière inorganique et sur la matière vivante,’ Rapports présentés au Congrès international de physique (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1900) 3:584–585.
Henri Bouasse, ‘Sur les déformations des solides,’ Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées 15 (1904) 121 ff. Cf. also his ‘Développement historique des théories de la physique,’ Scientia 7 (1910) 293.
Jacques Loeb, La Dynamique 10, 212 ff., 290, 311 [cf. Dynamics 5–6, 118 ff., 158, 175; citation of 311/Eng. 175 erroneous]. Driesch himself concedes that the fact that all tropisms are subject to Weber’s law, which resembles the rules governing the action of masses in chemistry, seems to demonstrate that “something chemical is connected with tropisms” and that we “may assume hypothetically that true simple reflexes are machine-like in every respect” (The Science and Philosophy of the Organism, Aberdeen: printed for the University, 1908, 2:9, 12).
O. Lehmann, ‘Scheinbar lebende fliessende Kristalle, künstliche Zellen und Muskeln,’ Scientia 4 (1908) 293 ff.
Stéphane Leduc, ‘Les Lois de la biogénèse,’ Revue scientifique, 5th Series, 5 (1906) 225–229, 265–268. Cf. Hans Przibram, Vitalität, Experimental-zoologie (Leipzig and Vienna: Franz Deuticke, 1913), 4:13–14.
Cf. Loeb, La Dynamique 80 ff. [Dynamics 38 ff.] on the work of Traube. Loeb does express reservations, however, and is “not at all inclined to see artificial organisms in the morphological imitations of cells and bacteria by means of inorganic precipitates” (La Fécondation chimique, trans. Anna Drzewina (Paris: Mercure de France, 1911), p. 339). Prenant, while judging that the physical theories proposed in this domain encounter “insurmountable difficulties,” nevertheless acknowledges that “anyone who knows the specters or phantoms produced by various physical forces, magnetic tracings for example, and in another connection has before his eyes the complete and perfect image of the mitotic division of a cell, is struck by their resemblance and hazards a physical explanation.” Prenant finds Leduc’s efforts “striking” and concludes that “the general features of resemblance [in the case of mitosis] are such that they prohibit us from appealing to a mysterious energy, a vital energy, distinct in nature from known physical energies” (‘Les théories physiques de la mitose,’ Scientia 13 (1913) 380–391 [Meyerson’s brackets]). Cf. also Lehmann, ‘Scheinbar lebende fliessende Kristalle, künstliche Zellen und Muskeln,’ Scientia 4 (1908) 293.
Loeb, La Fécondation chimique 27–28 [cf. Artifical Parthenogenesis and Fertilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1913), p. 21].
Yves Delage and Marie Goldsmith, La Parthénogénèse naturelle et expérimentale (Paris: Ernest Flammarion, 1913).
On this subject see Driesch, Der Vitalismus als Geschichte und als Lehre (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1905), pp. 155 ff. [The History and Theory of Vitalism, trans. C. K. Ogden (London: Macmillan, 1914), pp. 171 ff.].
Furthermore, Bäyer believes that it is in fact by means of this reaction that synthesis is carried out in the organism. See Loeb, La Dynamique 208 [Dynamics 114].
Cf. A. Betse, ‘Neuere Vorstellungen über die Natur der bio-elektrischen Ströme,’ Scientia 8 (1910) 70 ff., and O. Lehmann, ‘Scheinbar lebende fliessende Kristalle, künstliche Zellen und Muskeln,’ Scientia 4 (1908) 297.
See Filippo Bottazzi review of books by H. Bechhold, T. Brailsford Robertson and M. H. Fischer, Scientia 12 (1912) 276.
On this hypertrophy see Jean Nageotte, ‘Reviviscence de greffes ...,’ Bull. Soc. biol., 24 Nov. 1918, p. 892 [citation unverified].
Jean Nageotte, ‘Les substances conjonctives sont des coagulums albuminoïdes du milieu intérieur,’ Comptes rendus des séances et mémoires de la Société de Biologie [79 (1916) 833], 21 Oct. 1916, p. 1 of the offprint.
Nageotte, ‘La matière organisée et la vie,’ Scientia [24 (1918) 434–436], Dec. 1918, pp. 9–11 of the offprint.
Driesch, The Science and Philosophy of the Organism (Aberdeen: printed for the University, 1908), 2:150.
Furthermore, this concept has been taken up by Sir Oliver Lodge. Cf. George Henslow, ‘Ecology considered as bearing upon the Evolution of Plants,’ Scientia 13 (1913) 205.
Montaigne, Essais (Paris: Flammarion, 1908), 3:183 [The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford, California, 1958), p. 579].
Driesch, Die Biologie als selbständige Grundwissenschaft (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1893), p. 1.
André Morellet, Mémoires inédits de l‘abbé Morellet de l’academie Française, sur le dix-huitième siècle et sur la révolution, 2nd ed. (Paris: Ladvocat, 1822) 1:135 ff. Cf. IR 354 [Loewenberg 311]. Many theologians seem to have been well aware of the weakness of this position, however: Pascal notes that “no canonical author has ever used nature to prove God,” which, he adds, “is very noteworthy.” Moreover, Pascal himself never intends to use it. To tell unbelievers “that they have only to look at the least thing around them and they will see in it God plainly revealed ... is giving them cause to think that the proofs of our religion are indeed feeble, and reason and experience tell me that nothing is more likely to bring it into contempt in their eyes” (Pensées 445–446 [Krailsheimer 179, 263–4]).
Kant, Critique du jugement, trans. Jules-Romain Barni (Paris: Ladrange, 1846), 2:77, § 74 [Critique of Judgment, trans. J. H. Bernard (New York: Hafner), 1951, p. 248, § 75].
Leonard Huxley, Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (London: John Murray, 1918).
The Times Literary Supplement, 18 July 1918, p. 334.
Lucretius, De rerum nat. IV, 883–885: neque enim facere incipit ullam I rem quisquam, quam mens providit, quid velit ante: I id quod providet, illius rei constat imago.
Thomas Henri Martin, ‘Mémoire sur les hypothèses astronomiques d’Eudoxe, de Callippe, d’Aristote et de leur école,’ Mémoires de l’Institut National de France, Académie des Inscriptions 30 (1881): Pt. 1, p. 255. Cf. Aristotle, On the Soul 433a13–21.
Henri Poincaré, La science et l’hypothèse (Paris: Flammarion, n.d.), p. 154 [Science and Hypothesis, trans. George Bruce Halsted (New York: The Science Press, 1905), p. 93]. Jacques Loeb says that there “can be no economy in work except where there is memory and, as a consequence, reason; blind forces do not spare the means” (La Dynamique 224). But Descartes, on the subject of action at a distance, had already protested against an assumption that appeared to him to endow material particles with reason, to the point of making them “truly divine, so that they can know without any intermediary what is happening in very remote places and act upon them there” (Oeuvres 4:306 [erroneous citation]).
Albert-Auguste Cochon de Lapparent, Science et apologétique (Paris: Bloud, 1905), pp. 191–211.
Henri Piéron, ‘Les Instincts nuisibles à l’espèce devant les théories transformistes,’ Scientia 9 (1911) 201.
Bacon, De Augmentis Scientiarum, Bk. 3, Ch. 4, The Works of Lord Bacon (London: William Ball, 1837), 2:339 [Of the Dignity and Advancement of Learning, The Works of Francis Bacon, ed. Spedding, Ellis and Heath (Boston: Taggard and Thompson, 1843), 8:510].
Drisch explicitly posits it as such, declaring this concept “autonomous” and “irreducible” (The Science and Philosophy of the Organism, Aberdeen: printed for the University, 1908, 1:144, 288). See also 2:249, where Driesch asserts that no chemical substance is possible as a basis for entelechy.
Henri Piéron, ‘La Notion d’ “instinct,’” Bull Soc.fr. phil. 14 (1914) 327 ff.
Pierre Delbet, ‘Sciences médicales,’ in Henri Bouasse et al., De la Méthode dans les sciences, 1st series, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1910), p. 249 [1909 ed., p. 201].
Driesch, The Science and Philosophy of the Organism (Aberdeen: printed for the University, 1908), 2:208.
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Meyerson, É. (1991). Biological Phenomena. In: Explanation in the Sciences. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 128. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3414-9_7
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