Skip to main content

Perspectives of strain measurement techniques

  • Chapter
Strain Measurement in Biomechanics

Abstract

Strain measurements in biomechanics are a challenge, even with the established techniques of stain gauges, brittle lacquers, holography, thermography, photoelastic coatings and two-dimensional or three-dimensional photoelastic modelling; however, with care, each of these techniques may yield valuable data. The strengths and limitations of each of these techniques will be reviewed briefly in relation to their potential applications to research in orthopaedics. Applications are quoted from the literature, to help clarify each of the potential concerns or uses. Subsequent chapters provide more detailed information on the individual techniques of measurement.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Andrisano, A.O., Civatti, V., Dragoni, E. and Strozzi, A. (1988) A photoelastic analysis of ceramic heads for total hip replacements. Second Int. Conf. Engng. Mater., Bologna, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, J.T., Burton, D.R., Lalor, M.J. and O’Donovan, P.C. (1988) Opto/computer methods applied to the evaluation of a range of acetabular cups. Engng. Med., 17 (3), 105–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann, G., Graichen, F., Siraky, J., Jendrzynski, H. and Rohlmann, A. (1988) Multichannel strain gauge telemetry for orthopaedic implants. J. Biomech., 21 (2), 169–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blum, A.E. (1977) The use and understanding of photoelastic coatings. Strain, 13 (3), 96–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bray, A. (1981) The role of stress analysis in the design of force-standard transducers. Exptl. Mech., 21 (1), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bray, A., Barbato, G. and Levi, R. (1990) Theory and Practice of Force Measurement, Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, D.R., Smith, D. J., Spengler, D.M., Daly, C.H. and Frankel, V.H. (1980) Measurement and analysis of in vivo bone strains on the canine radius and ulna. J. Biomech., 13, 27–38.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cernosek, J. and Perla, M. (1971) Composite model technique for three dimensional photoelastic stress analysis. 4th Int. Conf. Exptl. Stress Analysis, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, pp. 189–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaturvedi, S.K. and Agarwal, B.D. (1978) Brittle coating studies on fibrous composites. Strain, 14 (4), 131–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhari, U.M. and Godbole, P.B. (1990) Direct oblique-incidence method for reflection photoelasticity. Exptl. Tech., 14 (2), 37–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, J.H. and Yavorsky, J.M. (1957) The brittle lacquer technique of stress analysis applied to anisotropic materials. Proc. S.E.S.A., 14, 101–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dally, J.W. and Alfirevich, I. (1969) Application of birefringent coatings to glass-fibre-reinforced plastics. Exptl. Mech., 9, 97–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dally, J.W. and Riley, W.F. (1985a) Experimental Stress Analysis, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, p. 449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dally, J.W. and Riley, W.F. (1985b) Experimental Stress Analysis, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, pp. 532–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, I.M. and Rowlands, R.E. (1973) Experimental stress analysis of composite materials. ASME Design Engng. Conf., Chicago, Paper 72-DE-6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, M. and Kurowski, P. (1985) The importance of mechanical factors in the aetiology of spondylolysis: A model analysis of loads and stresses in human lumbar spine. Spine, 10 (6), 532–42.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dorsey, J. (1977) Homegrown strain-gauge transducers. Exptl. Mech., 17, 255–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dubois, M. (1974) Design and manufacture of high precision strain gauge dynamometers and balances at the ONERA Modane Centre. Strain, 10 (4), 188–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, J.L. and Nicol, A.C. (1986) Experimental stress analysis of fresh bone using a thermoelastic technique. Proc. Joint Conf. on Mater. Prop. Stress Analysis Biomech., Institute of Physics and Biological Engineering Society, London, pp. 67–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fessler, H. and Fricker, D.C (1989) A study of stresses in alumina universal heads of femoral prostheses. Proc. I. Mech. E., 203H1, 15–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freynik, H.S. and Dittbenner, G.R. (1976) Strain-gauge-stability measurements for years at 75°C in air. Exptl Mech., 16, 155–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fricker, D.C. (1990) Stress concentration factors for intersecting arrays of notches in beams under pure bending, in Applied Stress Analysis, Elsevier, Oxford (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanser, U. (1972) Spannungsoptische Untersuchungen bei der Osteosynthese und Endoprothetik. Z. Orthop., 110, 871–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanser, U. (1979) Quantitative evaluation of holographic investigation in experimental orthopaedics, in Holography in Medicine and Biology (ed. G. von Bally), Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 27–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanser, U. (1989) Lasertechnische Bestimmung von Verformungen in der Experimentellen Biomechanik, Labor fur Biomechanik und Biomedizinische Technik. pp. 629–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harwood, N. (1984) Relative assessment of full field experimental stress analysis techniques. Strain, 21 (3) 119–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harwood, N. and Cummings, W.M. (1986) Applications of thermoelastic stress analysis. Strain, 22 (1), 7–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hearn, E.J. (1971) Brittle Lacquers for Strain Measurements, Merrow Publishing Company Ltd, Watford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heywood, R.B. (1969) Photoelasticity for Designers, Pergamon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hildebrand, B.P. and Haines, KA. (1967) Multiple wavelengths and multiple source holography, applied to contour generation. J. Opt. Soc. Amer., 57 (2), 155–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hossdorf, H. (1974) Model Analysis of Structures, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Wokingham.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacquot, P., Rastogi, P.K. and Pflug, L. (1983) Holographic interferometry applied to external osteosynthesis: Comparative analysis of the performances of external fixation prototypes, in Proceedings of SPIE — The International Society for Optical Engineering. Vol. 398: Industrial applications of laser technology (ed. W.F. Fagan), pp. 149–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R.M. (1975) Mechanics of Composite Materials, Hemisphere, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenwood, K.T. and Hindle, G.R. (1970) Analysis of strain in fibre-reinforced materials. J. Strain Anal., 5 (4), 309–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohles, S.S., Vanderby, R. Jr, Manley, P.M., Belloli, D.M., Sandor, B.I. and McBeath, A.A. (1989) A comparison of strain gauge analysis to differential infrared thermography in the proximal canine femur. Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 14, 490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuske, A. and Robertson, G. (1977) Photoelastic Stress Analysis, John Wiley, Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanyon, L.E. (1976) The measurement of bone strain in vivo. Acta Orthop. Belg., 42 (1), 98–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levi, R. (1972) Multicomponent calibration of machine-tool dynamometers. Trans. ASME, J. Engng. Ind., 94 (4), 1067–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, E.G. and O’Keefe, D. (1989) An experimental technique for the investigation of three dimensional stress in bone cement underlying a tibial plateau. Proc. I. Mech. E., 203 H1, 35–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, E.G., Tocher, D. and O’Donnell, P. (1990) Strain gauge reinforcement of plastics. Strain, 26 (3), 91–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macduff, I.B. (Ed.) (1978) Brittle lacquer technique, in Methods and Practice for Stress and Strain Measurement — Part 3 — Optical Methods for Determining Strain and Displacement, BSSM Monograph, Newcastle upon Tyne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnaflux Corporation (1971) Principles of Stresscoat Brittle Coating Stress Analysis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manley, M.T., Ovryn, B. and Stern, L.S. (1987) Evaluation of double-exposure holographic interferometry for biomechanical measurements in vitro. J. Orthop. Res., 5 (1), 144–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marschall, C.W. and Held, P.R. (1977) Measurement of long-term dimensional stability with electrical resistance strain gauges. Strain, 13 (1), 13–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Measurements Group Inc. (1977) Calibration of photoelastic coatings, Tech. Note. TN-701.

    Google Scholar 

  • Measurements Group Inc. (1980) Noise control in strain gauge measurements, Tech. Note TN-501.

    Google Scholar 

  • Measurements Group Inc. (1982) Errors due to transverse sensitivity in strain gauges, Tech. Note TN-509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Measurements Group Inc. (1983) Materials for photoelastic coatings, Bulletin S-116-D.

    Google Scholar 

  • Measurements Group Inc. (1986a) Principal stress separation in photostress measurements, Tech. Note TN-708.

    Google Scholar 

  • Measurements Group Inc. (1986b) Photostress separator gauge installations with M-Bond 200 adhesive, Instruction bulletin IB-237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milch, H. (1940) Photo-elastic studies of bone forms. J. Bone Jt. Surg., 22-A (3), 621–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nickola, W.E. (1978) Strain gauge measurements on plastic models. BSSM Ann. Conf: Applications of Materials Testing to Experimental Stress Analysis, Bradford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, D.E. and Jaeger, P. (1987) SPATE applications in North America: Report on US SPATE users group. SPIE, 731, 213–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ovryn, B. (1989) Holographic interferometry. CRC Crit. Rev. Biomed. Engng., 16, 269–322.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pauwels, F. (1950) Die Bedeutung der Baussprinzipien des Stütz- und Bewegungsapparates für die Beanspruchung der Röhrenknochen. Erster Beitrag zur funktionellen Anatomie und kausalen Morphologie des Stützapparates. Z. Anat., 114, 129–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pauwels, F. (1954) Kritische Ãœberprüfüng der Rouxschen Abhandlung: Beschreibung und Erläuterung einer knöchernen Kniegelenksankylose. Fünfter Beitrag zur funktionellen Anatomie und kausalen Morphologie des Stützapparates. Z. Anat., 117, 528–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, C.C. (1969) Strain gauge misalignment errors. Instrum. Control Syst., 42, 137–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, C.C. (Ed.) (1983) Modern strain gauge transducers — their design and construction Part IV: Transducer spring materials, chapter 2. Epsilonics, 3 (2), 6–7, Measurements Groups Inc., Raleigh, North Carolina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, C.C. (1985) Experimental stress analysis of reinforced plastics. 40th Ann. Conf., Reinforced Plastics — Composites Institute, Session 5-C, pp. 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, C.C. (1987) Strain gauge measurements on plastics and composites. Strain, 23 (4), 155–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pople, J. (1978) Some factors affecting long-term stability of strain measurements using metal foil gauges. Strain, 14 (3), 93–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pople, J. (1979) BSSM Strain Measurement Reference Book, British Society for Strain Measurement, Newcastle upon Tyne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pople, J. (1980) DIY strain gauge transducers (Part 1). Strain, 16 (1), 23–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pople, J. (1982) Errors and uncertainty in strain measurement, in Strain Gauge Technology (eds. A.L. Window and G.S. Holister), Applied Science Publishers, Barking, UK, pp. 209–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redner, A.S. (1963) New oblique-incidence method for direct photoelastic measurement of principal strains. Exptl. Mech., 3, 67–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redner, A.S. (1980) Photoelastic coatings. Exptl. Mech., 20 (11), 403–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redner, A.S. (1987) Separation of principal strains in photoelastic coatings by the slitting method. Exptl. Tech., 11 (5), 29–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samani, D.L, Friis, E.A., Cooke, F.W. and Henning, C.E. (1989) The effect of bone block shape on patellar stresses in ACL reconstruction. Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 14, 215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, J.C, Gorman, D. and Bonfield, W. (1990) Holographic assessment of internal fracture fixation devices. J. Biomech., 23 (4), 391 (Abstract).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J.D. (1977) Practical problems in calibration of torque tubes. Strain, 14 (4), 148–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, P. (Ed.) (1977) Methods and Practice for Stress and Strain Measurement — Part 2 — Photoelasticity, BSSM Monograph, Newcastle upon Tyne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, W. (Lord Kelvin) (1878) On the thermoelastic, thermomagnetic and pyroelectric properties of matter. Phil. Mag., 5, 4–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuttle, M.E. and Brinson, H.F. (1984) Resistance foil strain-gauge technology as applied to composite materials. Exptl. Mech., 24, 54–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, J.W. (1990) Examples of holographic testing versus state-of-the-art in the medical device industry. Proc. Soc., Photo Opt. Instrum. Engng., 604, 86–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Window, A.L. and Holister, G.S. (eds) (1982) Strain Gauge Technology, Applied Science Publishers, Barking.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wootton, A.J., Mackinnon, J.A. and Paton, W. (1977) The role of brittle lacquer techniques in the efficient design of GRP fan blades. Strain, 13 (4), 132–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, T.M. and Hayes, W. (1978) Strain gauge applications on compact bone. 7. Biomech., 12, 471-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yosioka, Y. and Shiba, R. (1981) A study on the stress analysis of the pelvis by means of the three-dimensional photoelastic experiments. J. Jap. Orthop. Assoc., 55 (2), 209–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zandman, F., Redner, S. and Riegner, E.I. (1962) Reinforcing effect of birefringent coatings. Exptl. Mech., 2, 55–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1992 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Little, E.G., Finlay, J.B. (1992). Perspectives of strain measurement techniques. In: Miles, A.W., Tanner, K.E. (eds) Strain Measurement in Biomechanics. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2330-3_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2330-3_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-5029-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-011-2330-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics