Abstract
Early childhood education (ECE) is probably more vulnerable than any other educational sector to the winds of economic, political, and social change. This is largely due to the lack of a stable and universally agreed upon curriculum core, and because the inputs to the system, namely young children themselves, typically have not received formalized education, which would firmly anchor the ECE curriculum and provide “inertia” to the system. Nonetheless, certain practices are influencing the quality of early childhood education. The practice of testing young children is becoming more and more common, with significant social consequences, yet very little analysis has been carried out to ascertain the value, if any, of such a policy. It is therefore critical that we begin examining the consequences of standardized testing for young children. In this chapter, the practices and policies surrounding ECE and testing will be reviewed and conclusions drawn regarding their current effectiveness.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abidin, R., W. Golladay and A. Howerton. (1971) Elementary school retention: An unjustifiable discriminatory and noxious educational policy, Journal of School Psychology, 9, 410–17.
Aiken, L. R. (1985) Review of the CIRCUS. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume 1, ed. J. V. Mitchell, 326–28. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
Ames, C. and R. Ames. (1984) Goal structures and motivation, Elementary School Journal, 85, 40–51.
Ames, C. and R. Ames, (eds.) (1985) Research on motivation in education. Vol. 2: The classroom milieu. Orlando: Academic Press.
Ames, L. B. (1980) Retention: A step forward, Early Years, 10, 11.
Ames, L. B. and F. L. Ilg. (1964) Gesell behavior tests as predictive of later grade placement. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 19, 719–22.
Anastasi, A. (1983) What do intelligence tests measure? In On educational testing, ed. S. B. Anderson and J. S. Helmick, 5–28. San Francisco: lossey-Bass.
Anastasi, A. (1986) Intelligence as a quality of behavior. In What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definitions, ed. R. J. Sternberg and D. K. Detterman, 19–21. Norwood: Ablex.
Anastasi, A. (1988) Psychological testing. New York: Macmillan.
Austin, G., De Vries A., Thirion, A. and K. Stukat. (1975) Early childhood education in three countries, International Journal of Early Childhood, 7, 157–65.
Baranova, T. I. and N. S. Rozyeva. (1985) From the history of the experimental teaching of six-year-old children in the USSR, Soviet Education, 27 (5), 22–38.
Barnes, K. E. (1982) Preschool screening: The measurement and prediction of children at-risk. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas.
Bayley, N. (1949) Consistency and variability in the growth of intelligence from birth to 18 years, Journal of Genetic Psychology, 75, 165–96.
Bear, G. G. and P. D. Modlin. (1987) Gesell’s developmental testing: What purpose does it serve?, Psychology in the Schools, 24, 40–44.
Beattie, C. (1970) Entrance age to kindergarten and first grade: Its effect on cognitive and affective development of students. ERIC/ED 133 050.
Bell, M. (1972) A study of the readiness room in a small school district in suburban Detroit, Michigan. Ph.D. diss., Dept of Psychology, Wayne State University.
Beller, E. K. (1973) Research on organized programs of early education. In Second handbook of research on teaching, ed. R. Travers, 530–600. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Bocks, W. M. (1977) Nonpromotion: A year to grow?, Educational Leadership, 34 (5), 179–82.
Boehm, D. (1971) Boehm test of basic concepts. Cleveland: The Psychological Corporation.
Bredekamp, S. (1987) Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974) Is early intervention effective? A report on longitudinal evaluations of preschool programs. Washington, DC: Office of Child Development, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Buros, O. K., (ed.) (1978) The eighth mental measurements yearbook. Highland Park: Gryphon Press.
California State Department of Education. (1988) Here they come, ready or not!: Report of the School Readiness Task Force. Sacramento: California State Department of Education.
Campbell, B. D. (1987) From national debate to national responsibility. In Early schooling: The national debate, ed. S. L. Kagan and E. F. Zigler, 65–82. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Carstens, A. (1985) Retention and social promotion for the exceptional child, School Psychology Review, 14, 48–63.
Cartwright, G. P. and D. K. McIntosh. (1972) Three approaches to grouping procedures for the education of disadvantaged primary school children, Journal of Educational Research, 65, 425–29.
Charlesworth, R. (1985) Readiness: Should we make them ready or let them bloom? Day Care and Early Education, 12, 3, 25–27.
CIRCUS. (1979) Monterey: CTB/McGraw-Hill.
Cole, M. and S. Scribner. (1974) Culture and thought: A psychological introduction. New York: Wiley.
Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. (1979) Lasting effects after preschool, summary report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children, Youth and Families.
Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. (1983) As the twig is bent...Lasting effects of preschool programs. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cooke, G. and J. Stammer. (1985) Grade retention and social promotion practices, Childhood Education, 4, 302–10.
Covington, M. V. (1984) The self-worth theory of achievement: Findings and implications, Elementary School Journal, 8, 5–20.
Covington, M. V. and C. Omelich. (1979) Effort: The double-edged sword in school achievement, Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 169–82.
Cronbach, L. (1970) Essentials of psychological testing. New York: Harper and Row.
Cummings, J. A. (1982) Interpreting functioning levels: Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery, Psychological Reports, 50, 1167–71.
Cunningham, A. E. (1990) Explicit versus implicit instruction in phonemic awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, 429–444.
Dahllof, U. S. (1971) Ability grouping, content validity, and curriculum process analysis. New York: Teachers College Press.
Darling-Hammond, L. and A. E. Wise. (1985) Beyond standardization: State standards and school improvement, The Elementary School Journal, 85, 315–36.
Davis, B., Trimble, C. and D. Vincent. (1980) Does age of entrance affect school achievement? The Elementary School Journal, 3, 133–43.
Deutsch, M. (1985) New vitality in follow-ups of Head Start youngsters, The Brown University Human Development Newsletter, 1 (June), 6.
Diamond, G. H. (1983) The birthdate effect-A maturational effect? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 161–64.
DiPasquale, G., Moule, A. and R. Flewelling. (1980) The birth date effect, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 4–8.
Donofrio, A. F. (1977) Grade repetition: Therapy of choice, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 28–30.
Donofrio, A. F. and M. O’Hare. (1969) Childhood misdiagnosis: The bias for psychogenicity, Psychology in the Schools, 6, 369–70.
Dyer, C. O. (1978) Review of the Otis-Lennon. In The eighth mental measurements yearbook, 1107–11 (See Buros, 1978.)
Elkind, D. (1981) The hurried child: Growing up too fast too soon. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Elkind, D. (1987) Miseducation: Preschoolers at risk. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Elkind, D. (1988) The “miseducation” of young children, Education Week, 7 (19), 24.
Eschel, Y. and A. Klein. (1978) The effects of integration and open education on mathematics achievement in the early grades in Israel, American Educational Research Journal, 15, 319–23.
Evans, J. (1982) Curriculum models and early childhood education. In Handbook of research in early childhood education, ed. B. Spodek. New York: The Free Press.
Featherman, D. (1980) Schooling and occupational careers: Constancy and change in worldly success. In Constancy and change in human development, ed. O. Brim and J. Kagan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Fein, G. and P. Schwartz. (1982) Developmental theories in early education. In Handbook of research in early childhood education, ed. B. Spodek. New York: The Free Press.
Frankenburg, W. K. and J. B. Dodds. (1981) Denver Developmental Screening Test-Revised. Denver: LADOCA Publishing Foundation.
Freeman, B. J. (1985) Review of Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume 2, ed. J. V. Mitchell, 1725–26. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1987) Developing the spectrum of human intelligence, Harvard Education Review, 57, 187–93.
Gelman, R. (1969) Conservation acquisition: A problem of learning to attend to relevant attributes, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 7, 167–87.
Gelman, R. (1978) Cognitive development, Annual Review of Psychology, 29, 297–332.
Gelman, R. and C. Gallistel. (1978) The child’s understanding of number. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Genesereth, M. R. (1980) Metaphors and models. In Proceedings of the 1st National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Stanford, CA, 208-11. American Association for Artificial Intelligence.
Georgia Department of Education. (1988) February, Promotion and Retention. Atlanta, Georgia. Georgia Department of Education. (1988) March. Memorandum to system superintendents. Atlanta, Georgia.
Gesell, A. (1954) The ontogenesis of infant behavior. In Manual of child psychology, L. Carmichael (ed.), 335–73. New York: Wiley.
Gesell Institute of Human Development. (1978) Gesell Readiness Screening Test. Lumberville: Programs for Education.
Gesell, A. (1979) Gesell Preschool Test. Lumberville, PA: Programs for Education.
Gesell, A. (1980) A gift of time...A developmental point of view. New Haven: Gesell Institute of Human Development.
Gesell, A. (1987) The Gesell Institute responds, Young Children, 43 (2), 7–8.
Goodlad, J. I. (1960) Classroom organizations. In Encyclopedia of educational research 3d ed., ed. C. Harris, 221–26. New York: Macmillan.
Gray, S. W., Ramsey, B. K. and R. A. Klaus. (1982) From 3 to 20: The early training project. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Gredler, G. R. (1975) Readiness for school: A look at some critical issues. In Reading and related skills, ed. M. Clark and A. Milne, 37–45. London: Wood Lock Education.
Gredler, G. R. (1978) A look at some important factors in assessing readiness for school, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1, 25–31.
Gredler, G. R. (1980) The birthdate effect: Fact or artifact? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 239–42.
Gredler, G. R. (1984) Transition classes: A viable alternative for the at-risk child? Psychology in the Schools, 21, 463–76.
Green, D. R. and S. V. Simmons. (1962) Chronological age and school entrance, Elementary School Journal, 63, 41–47.
Grubb, W. N. (1987) May. Young children face the states: Issues and options for early childhood programs. Washington, DC: Center for Policy Research in Education.
Hadermann, K. F. (1976) Ability grouping-Its effect on learners, National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 60, 85–89.
Haines, J., Ames, L. B. and C. Gillespie. (1980) The Gesell Preschool Test manual. Lumberville: Modern Learning Press.
Hall, V. (1963) Does entrance age affect achievement? The Elementary School Journal, (April), 391–96.
Hallahan, D. P. and J. Kauffman. (1986) Exceptional children. 3d ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Hart, R. H. (1967) The effectiveness of an approach to the problem of varying abilities in teaching reading. In School organization: Theory and practice, ed. M. P. Franklin, 443–48. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Henig, R. M. (1988) Should baby read? New York Times Magazine, (22 May), 37–38.
Holmes, C. and K. Matthews. (1984) The effects of nonpromotion of elementary and junior high school pupils: A meta-analysis, Review of Educational Research, 54, 225–36.
Ilg, F. L. and L. B. Ames. (1965) School readiness. New York: Harper and Row.
Ilg, F. L., Ames, L. B., Haines, J. and C. Gillespie. (1978) School readiness: Behavior tests used at the Gesell Institute. New York: Harper and Row.
Jackson, G. B. (1975) The research evidence on the effects of grade retention, Review of Educational Research, 45, 613–35.
Jensen, A. R. (1981) Straight talk about mental tests. New York: The Free Press.
Jinks, P. C. (1964) An investigation into the effect of date of birth on subsequent school performance, Educational Research, 6, 220–25.
Kagan, S. L. (1987) Early schooling: On what grounds? In Early schooling: The national debate, ed. S. L. Kagan and E. F. Zigler, 129–50. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Kahneman, D., Slovic, P. and A. Tversky. (1982) Judgement under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kail, R. and J. W. Pellegrino. (1985) Human intelligence: Perspectives and prospects. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Katz, L. G. (1977) Early childhood programs and ideological disputes. In Talks with teachers, ed. L. G. Katz. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Katz, L. G. (1985) Dispositions in early childhood education, ERIC/ EECE Bulletin, 18, 2.
Katz, L. G. (1987) Early education: What should young children be doing? In Early schooling: The national debate, S. L. Kagan and E. F. Zigler, 151–67. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Kaufman, N. L. (1985a) Review of the McCarthy Screening Test. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume I, ed. J. V. Mitchell, 928–30. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
Kaufman, N. L. (1985b) Review of Gesell preschool test. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume 1, ed. J. V. Mitchell, 607–8. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
Kirp, D. L. (1974) Student classification, public policy, and the courts, Harvard Educational Review, 44, 7–52.
Kohlberg, L. (1968) Early education: A cognitive-developmental view, Child Development, 39, 1013–62.
Kohlberg, L. and R. Mayer. (1972) Development as an aim of education, Harvard Educational Review, 42, 449–96.
Langer, P., Kalk, J. M. and D. T. Searls. (1984) Age of admission and trends in achievement: A comparison of blacks and caucasians, American Educational Research Journal, 21, 61–78.
Laosa, L. M. (1984) Social policies toward children of diverse ethnic, racial, and language groups in the United State. In Child development research and social policy, ed. H. W. Stevenson and A. E. Siegel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lazar, I., Darlington, R. B., Murray, H. W. and A. S. Snipper. (1982) Lasting effects of early education: A report from the Consortium for Longitudinal Studies, Monograph of Society for Research in Child Development, 47 (195, Serial No. 2-3)
Lefkowitz, L. J. (1972) Ability grouping: Defacto segregation in the classroom, Clearing House, 46, 293–97.
Leinhardt, G. (1980) Transition rooms: Promoting maturation or reducing education? Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 55–61.
Lichtenstein, R. (1980) The Minneapolis Preschool Screening Inventory. Minneapolis: Minneapolis Public Schools.
Lichtenstein, R. and H. Ireton. (1984) Preschool screening: Identifying young children with developmental and educational problems. Orlando: Grune and Stratton.
Ligon, G. (1985) Review of the CIRCUS. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume 1. J. V. Mitchell (ed.) 328–29. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
McCarthy, D. (1972) McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities. New York: Psychological Corporation.
McCarthy, D. (1978) McCarthy Screening Test. New York: Psychological Corporation.
Madden, N. A. and R. E. Slavin. (1983) Mainstreaming students with mild handicaps: Academic and social outcomes, Review of Educational Research, 55, 519–59.
Maddux, C. (1980) First-grade entry age in a sample of children labeled learning disabled, Learning Disability Quarterly, 3, 79–83.
May, D. (1986) Relationships between the Gesell Readiness Test and standardized achievement and intelligence measures, Educational and Psychological Measurement, 46, 1051–59.
May, D. and E. Welch. (1984a) Developmental placement: Does it prevent future learning problems? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 338–41.
May, D. and E. Welch. (1984b) The effects of developmental placement and early retention on children’s later scores on standardized tests, Psychology in the Schools, 21, 381–85.
May, D. & E. Welch. (1985) The effects of developmental placement on young children’s cognitive and social-emotional development, Early Child Development and Care, 22, 195–209.
May, D. and E. Welch. (1986) Screening for school readiness: The influence of birthdate and sex, Psychology in the Schools, 23, 100–105.
Mehrens, W. A. and I. J. Lehmann. (1984) Measurement and evaluation in education and psychology. (3rd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Meisels, S. (1984) Prediction, prevention, and developmental screening in the EPSDT program. In Child development research and social policy, ed. H. W. Stevenson and A. E. Siegel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Meisels, S. (1985) Developmental screening in early childhood: A guide. Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Meisels, S. (1986) Testing four-and five-year-olds: Response to Salzar and to Shepard and Smith, Education Leadership, 44, 90–92.
Meisels, S. (1987) Uses and abuses of developmental screening and school readiness testing, Young Children, 42 (2), 4–6.
Meisels, S. (1988) Developmental screening in early childhood: The interaction of research and social policy, Annual Review of Public Health, 9, 527–50.
Meisels, S. (1989) Can developmental screening tests identify children who are developmentally at-risk? Pediatrics, 83, 4, 578–585.
Meisels, S. and N. J. Anastasiow. (1982) The risks of prediction: Relationships between etiology, handicapping conditions, and developmental outcomes. Vol. 3 of The young child: Reviews of research, ed. S. Moore and C. Cooper. Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Meisels, S. and M. S. Wiske. (1983) The Early Screening Inventory. New York: Teachers College Press.
Meisels, S. and L. Margolis. (1988) Is the early and periodic screening, diagnosis, and treatment program effective with developmentally disabled children? Pediatrics, 81, 262–71.
Meisels, S., Wiske, M. and T. Tivan. (1984) Predicting school performance with the Early Screening Inventory, Psychology in the Schools, 21, 25–33.
Miller, W. and R. Norris. (1967) Entrance age and school success, Journal of School Psychology, 6, 47–59.
Milofsky, C. D. (1974) Why special education isn’t special, Harvard Educational Review, 44, 437–58.
Mitchell, J. V., (ed.) (1985) The ninth mental measurements yearbook. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
Naglieri, J. A. (1985a) Review of the McCarthy Screening Test. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume I, ed. J. V. Mitchell, 930–32. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
Naglieri, J. A. (1985b) Review of Gesell Preschool Test. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume I, ed. J. V. Mitchell, 608–09. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (1979) Changes in mathematical achievement, 1973–78. Denver: NAEP.
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (1981) Reading, thinking and writing: results from the 1979–80 National Assessment of Reading and Literature. Denver: NAEP.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1986) NAEYC position statement on developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8, Young Children, 41 (6), 3–19.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1988) NAEYC position statement on developmentally appropriate practice in the primary grades, serving 5-through 8-year-olds, Young Children, 43 (2), 64–84.
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983) A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
National Research Council. (1979) The state of school science. Washington, DC: Commission on Human Resources.
Niklason, L. B. (1984) Nonpromotion: A pseudoscientific solution, Psychology’ in the Schools, 21, 485–99.
Nurss, J. R. and M. E. McGauvran. (1976) Metropolitan Readiness Tests. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Oakes, J. (1981) A question of access: tracking and curriculum differentiation in a national sample of English and mathematics classes. A study of schooling: Technical report, No. 24. Los Angeles: University of California.
Oakes, J. (1985) Keeping track. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Oakland, T. (1985) Review of the Otis-Lennon. In The ninth mental measurements yearbook, volume 1, ed. J. V. Mitchell, 1111–12. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
Olson, W. C. (1967) Ability grouping: Pros and cons. In School organization: Theory and practice, ed. M. P. Franklin, 449–54. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Osborn, K. D. (1975) Early childhood education in historical perspective. Athens, GA: Education Associates.
Otis, A. and R. Lennon. (1979) Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Perfetti, C. A. (1985) Reading Ability. Boston: Oxford University Press.
Plummer, D. L., Lineberger, M. H. and W. G. Graziano. (1986) The academic and social consequences of grade retention: A convergent analysis. In Current topics in early childhood education: Volume 6, L. G. Katz (ed.), 224–52. Norwood: Ablex.
Polya, G. (1957) How to solve it. 2d ed. New York: Doubleday.
Putka, G. (1988a) Schools start flunking many more students in drive on mediocrity, Wall Street Journal, November 30, 1, 10.
Putka, G. (1988b) Tense tots: Some schools press fast-track children so hard that they become stressed and fearful. Wall Street Journal, July 6, 1, 12.
Raygor, B. (1972) A five year followup study comparing the school achievement and school adjustment of children retained in kindergarten and children placed in a transition class. Ph.D. diss., Dept of Psychology, University of Minnesota.
Roberts, C. M. (1986) Whatever happened to kindergarten? Educational Leadership, 44, 34.
Rogoff, B. (1982) Integrating context and cognitive development. In Advances in developmental psychology: Vol. 2, ed. M. E. Lamb and A. L. Brown, 125–70. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rose, J., Medway, F., Cantrell, V. and S. Marcus. (1983) A fresh look at the retention-promotion controversy, Journal of School Psychology, 21, 201–11.
Salvia, J. and J. E. Ysseldyke. (1985) Assessment in special and remedial education. 3d ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Sarason, S. B. (1987) Policy, implentation, and the problem of change. In Early schooling: The national debate, S. L. Kagan and E. F. Zigler (eds.), 116–28. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sattler, J. M. (1982) Assessment of children’s intelligence and special abilities. 2d ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985) Metacognitive and epistemological issues in mathematical understanding. In Teaching and learning mathematical problem solving: Multiple research perspectives, E. A. Silver (ed.), 361–79. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Schweinhart, L. S. and J. Koschel. (1986) Policy options for preschool programs. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Early Childhood Policy Papers.
Seligmann, J. and A. Murf. (1988) Making the (first) grade: Georgia puts kindergarten skills to the test, Newsweek, (April 25), 58.
Semmel, M. I., Gottlieb, J. and N. M. Robinson. (1979) Mainstreaming: Perspective on educating handicapped children in the public school. In Review of research in education: Vol. 7, D. C. Berliner (ed.), 223–79. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Shepard, L. A. and M. L. Smith. (1985) March. Boulder Valley kindergarten study: Retention practices and retention effects. Boulder: Boulder Valley Public Schools.
Shepard, L. A. and M. L. Smith. (1986) Synthesis of research on school readiness and kindergarten retention, Educational Leadership, 44, 78–86.
Shepard, L. A. and M. L. Smith. (1988) Escalating academic demand in kindergarten: Counterproductive policies, Elementary School Journal, 89, 135–45.
Shepard, L. A. and M. L. Smith. (1980) Effects of kindergarten retention at the end of first grade, Psychology in the School, 24, 4, 346–357.
Sigel, I. E. (1987) Early childhood education: Developmental enhancement or developmental acceleration? In Early schooling: The national debate, ed. S. L. Kagan and E. F. Zigler, 129–50. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Slaughter, D. T. (1983) Early intervention and its effects on maternal and child development, Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48 (4, Serial No. 202)
Sleeman, D. H. and M. J. Smith. (1981) Modeling structural problem solving, Artificial Intelligence, 16 (2), 171–87.
Smith, E. F. (1986) The validity of the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 332–44.
Smith, M. L. and L. A. Shepard. (1987) What doesn’t work: Explaining policies of retention in the early grades, Phi Delta Kappan, 69, 129–34.
Spodek, B. (1972) Teaching in the early years. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Spodek, B. (1983) Early childhood education and evaluation: An overview, Studies in Educational Evaluation, 8, 203–7.
Spodek, B. (1986) Development, values and knowledge in the kindergarten curriculum. In Today’s kindergarten: Exploring its knowledge base, extending its curriculum, ed. B. Spodek, 32–47. New York: Teachers College Press.
Spodek, B. (1988) Conceptualizing today’s kindergarten curriculum, Elementary School Journal, 89, 203–11.
Starch, D. and E. C. Elliott. (1912) Reliability of grading high school work in English, School Review, 20, 442–57.
Sternberg, R. (1977) Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sternberg, R. (1985) Beyond lQ. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J. and D. K. Detterman. (1986) What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definitions. Norwood: Ablex.
Talmadge, S. J. (1981) Descriptive and predictive relationships among family environments, cognitive characteristics, behavioral ratings, transition room placement, and early reading achievement. Ph.D. diss., University of Oregon.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1986) August. Half of mothers with children under 3 now in labor force. Washington, DC: USDL 86–345.
VanLehn, K. (1983) Human processing skill acquisition: Theory, model, and psychological validation. Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 420–23. Washington, DC: American Association for Artificial Intelligence.
Wechsler, D. (1967) Manual for the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. New York: The Psychological Corporation.
Weinstein, L. (1968–1969) School entrance age and adjustment, Journal of School Psychology, 7, 209–28.
Westinghouse Learning Corporation. (1969) The impact of Head Start: An evaluation of the effects of Head Start on children’s cognitive and affective development: Vols. I–II. Athens: Ohio University.
Willis, J. (1970) Group versus individual intelligence tests in one sample of emotionally disturbed children. Psychological Reports, 27, 819–22.
Winn, M. (1983) Children without childhood. New York: Penguin.
Wood, C., Powell, S. and R. C. Knight. (1984) Predicting school readiness: The validity of developmental age, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 8–11.
Woodcock, R. and B. Johnson. (1977) Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery. Hingham: Teaching Resources Corporation.
Zelizer, V. A. (1985) Pricing the priceless child: The changing value of the child. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Zigler, E. (1970) The environmental mystique: Training the intellect versus development of the child, Childhood Education, 46, 402–12.
Zigler, E. (1973a) Project Head Start: Success or failure? Children Today, 2, 2–8.
Zigler, E. (1973b) Myths and facts: A guide for policymakers, Compact, 7, 18–2l.
Zigler, E. (1987) Formal Schooling for Four-Year-Olds? No, American Psychologist, 42, 254–60.
Zigler, E. and P. Trickett. (1978) IQ, social competence, and evaluation of early childhood intervention programs, American Psychologist, 33, 789–98.
Zigler, E. and J. Valentine. (1979) Project Head Start: A legacy of the war on poverty. New York: Free Press.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Cunningham, A.E. (1993). EENY, MEENY, MINY, MOE: Testing Policy and Practice in Early Childhood. In: Gifford, B.R. (eds) Policy Perspectives on Educational Testing. Evaluation in Education and Human Services, vol 32. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2226-9_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2226-9_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-4987-0
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-2226-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive