Abstract
Commodity plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinylchloride (PVC) make up a large of proportion of the total tonnage of plastic currently being used mainly for non-loadbearing applications (e.g. consumer products). However, with the ever-increasing use of plastics in the areas dominated by the use of metal or ceramics, e.g. in the automobile industry, new engineering plastics, both thermoplastics and thermoset resins, have been developed which provide the combinations of lightness and good balance of stiffness, and some also in toughness, over a wide range of temperature applications.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Paul, D.R. and Barlow, J.W. (1984) A binary interaction model for miscibility of copolymers in blends. Polymer, 25, 487.
Manson, J.A. and Sperling, L.H. (1976) Polymer Blends and Composites, Plenum Press, New York.
Noolandi, J. and Hong, K.M. (1984) Effect of block copolymers at a demixed homopolymer interface. Macromolecules, 17, 1531.
Liebler, L. (1982) Theory of phase equilibria in mixtures of copolymers and homopolymers. 2: Interfaces near the consulate point. Macromolecules 15, 1283.
Paul, D.R., Locke, C.E. and Vinsa, C.E. (1973) Chlorinated polyethylene modification of blends derived from waste plastics. Part 1: Mechanical behaviour. Polym. Eng. Sci. 13, 202.
Locke, C.E. and Paul, D.R. (1973) Graft copolymer modification of polyethylene/polystyrene blends. II: Properties and modified blends. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 17, 2791.
Barentsen, W.M. and Heikens, D. (1973) Mechanical properties of PS/LDPE blends. Polymer 14, 549.
Barentsen, W.M., Heikens, D. and Piet, P. (1974) Effect of addition of graft copolymer on the microstructure and impact strength of PS/LDPE blend. Polymer 15, 119.
Siqueira, D.F., Galenmbeck, F. and Nunes, S.P. (1991) Adhesion and morphology of PVDF/PMMA and compatibilised PVDF/PS interfaces. Polymer 32, 990.
Keskula, and Paul, D.R. (1987) Methyl-methacrylate grafted rubbers as impact modifier for styrenic polymers. Polym. Sci. Eng. Preprint 57, 674.
Angola, J.C., Fujita, Y., Sakai, T. and Inoue, T. (1989) Compatibiliser-aided toughening in polymer blends consisting of brittle polymer particles dispersed in a ductile polymer matrix. J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Phys. 26, 807.
Choudhary, V., Varma, H.S. and Varma, K. (1991) Polyolefin blends: Effect of EPDM rubber on crystallisation, morphology and mechanical properties of PP/EPDM blend 1. Polymer 32, 2534.
Choudhary, V., Varma, H.S. and Varma, K. (1991) Effect of EPDM rubber on melt rheology morphology and mechanical properties of PP/HDPE (90/10) blend 2. Polymer 32, 2541.
Van Gisbergen, J.G.M., Borgmans, C.P.J.H., Van der Sanden, M.C.M. and Lemstra, P.J. (1990) Impact behaviour of PS/EPDM-rubber blends: Influence of electron beam irradiation. Polymer Communications 31, 162.
Jian, R., Quirk, R.P., White, J.L. and Min, K. (1991) Polycarbonate—polystyrene block copolymers and their application as compatibilising agents in polymer blends. Polym. Eng. Sci. 31, 1545.
US Patent 998439.
Borggreve, R.J.M., Gaymans, R.J. and Schuijer, J. (1989) Impact behaviour of nylon-rubber blends: 5. Influence of the mechanical properties of the elastomer. Polymer 30, 71.
Wroctecki, C., Heim, P. and Gaillard, P. (1991) Rubber toughening of poly(methyl methacrylate). Part 1: Effect of the size and hard layer composition of the rubber particles. Polym. Eng. Sci. 31, 213.
Bucknall, C.B. (ed.) (1977) Toughened Plastics, Applied Science Publishers, London.
Tinker, A.J. (1985) Factors influencing the impact properties of PP/NR blend. Proc. Int. Conf. Toughening of Plastics—II. The Plastic and Rubber Institute, 2–4 July, London, Chapter 14.
Dao, K.C. (1982) Mechanical properties of polypropylene/crosslink rubber blends. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 27, 4799.
Jang, B.Z., Uhlmann, D.R. and Vander Sande, J.B. (1984) Crystalline morphology of polypropylene and rubber modified polypropylene. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 29, 4377.
Martuscelli, E., Maglio, G., Paalumbo, R., Malinconico, M., Greco, R., Rogosta, G. and Sellitti, C. (1985) Rubber modification of polyamide 6: methods—properties—morphology relationships. Proc. Int. Conf. Toughening of Plastics-II. The Plastic and Rubber Institute, 2–4 July, London, Chapter 12.
Nadkarni, V.M., Shingankuli, V.L. and Jog, J.P. Blends of thermoplastic polyesters with amorphous polyamide 1. Thermal and crystallisation behaviour. Polym. Eng. Sci. 28, 1326.
Teh, J.W. and Rudin, A. (1991) Properties and morphology of polystyrene and linear low density polyethylene polyblend and polyalloy. Polym. Eng. Sci. 31, 1033.
Fowler, M.W. and Baker, W.E. (1988) Rubber toughening of PS through reactive blending. Polym. Eng. Sci. 28, 1427.
Akhtar, S. and White, J.L. (1991) Characteristics of binary and ternary blends of poly (p-phenylene sulfide) with poly(bisphenol A)sulfone and polyetherimide. Polym. Eng. Sci. 31, 84.
Weiss, R.A., Huh, W. and Nicolais, L. (1987) Non-reinforced polymer based on blends of polystyrene and thermotropic liquid crystalline polymer. Polym. Eng. Sci. 27, 684.
Isayev, A.I. and Modic, M.T.J. (1987) Polymer Composite 8, 158.
Nobile, M.R., Amendola, E., Nicolais, L., Acierno, D. and Carfagne, C. (1989) Physical properties of blend of PC and LC copolyesters. Polym. Eng. Sci. 29, 244.
Shin, B.Y. and Chung, I.J. (1990) Polymer blend containing a thermotropic polyester with long flexible spacer in the main chain. Polym. Eng. Sci. 30, 22.
Isayev, A.I. and Subramanian (1992) Blends of a liquid crystalline polymer with polyether ether ketone. Polym. Eng. Sci. 32, 85.
Bucknall, C.B. and Jones, D.P. (1982) Deformation and fracture of thermoplastic containing spherical particles: A comparison between rigid spheres and rubber particles. Proc. Int. Conf. Deformation, Yield and Fracture of Polymers. The Plastic and Rubber Institute, Cambridge, Chapter 27.
Chong, L.S., Mai, Y.W. and Cotterell, B. (1989) Impact fracture energy of mineral-filled polypropylene. Polym. Eng. Sci. 29, 505.
Lee, H. and Neville, N. (1967) Handbook of Epoxy Resins, McGraw-Hill Inc.
Shimp, D.A. (1986) The translation of dicyanate structure and cyclotrimerization efficiency to polycyanurate properties. Polym. Mat. Sci. Eng., ACS meeting, New York, p. 107.
Landman, D. (1986) Advances in the chemistry and applications of BMI in Developments in Reinforced Plastics—5 Pritchard, G., ed., Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London and New York, Chapter 2, p. 39.
Gillham, J.K., Mcphersin, K.A. and Manzione, L.T. (1981) Rubber modified epoxies: I transition and morphology. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 26 (3), 907.
Bucknall, C.B. and Partridge, I.K. (1983) Phase separation in epoxy resins containing PES. Brit. Polym. J. 15, 71.
Sultan, J.N., Laible, R.C. and McGarry, F.J. (1971) Microstructures of two phase polymers. Appt. Polym. Symposium 16, 127.
Sultan, J.N. and McGarry, F.J. (1969) Microstructural characteristics of toughened thermoset polymers. MIT School of Engineering Report R69-59.
Rowe, A.E., Siebert, A.R. and Drake, R.S. (1970) Toughening thermosets with liquid butadiene/acrylonitrile polymers. Modern Plastics 47, 110.
Siebert, A.R. and Riew, C.K. (1971) The chemistry of rubber toughened epoxy resins I. Proc. 161st ACS meeting, Organic Coatings and Plastics Division, Los Angeles, CA.
Riew, C.K., Rowe, E.A. and Siebert, A.R. (1976) Rubber toughened thermosets in Toughness and Brittleness of Plastic, Deanin, R.D. and Crugnola, A.C.S., eds, Adv. Chem. Ser. No. 154, Washington.
Bucknall, C.B. and Yoshii, T. (1978) Relationships between structure and mechanical properties in rubber toughened epoxy resins. Brit. Polym. J. 10, 53.
Kunz-Douglass, S., Beaumont, P.W.R. and Ashby, M.F. (1980) A model for the toughness of epoxy-rubber particulate composites. J. Mat. Sci. 15, 1109.
Bascom, W.D., Cottington, R.L., Jones, R.L. and Peyser, P. (1975) The fracture of epoxy and elastomer-modified epoxy polymers in bulk and as adhesives. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 19, 2545.
Kinloch, A.J., Shaw, S.J., Todd, D.A. and Hunston, D.L. (1983) Deformation and fracture behaviour of a rubber toughened epoxy. 1: Microstructures and fracture studies. Polymer 24, 1341.
Yee, A.F. and Pearson, R.A. (1986) Toughening mechanisms in modified epoxies. Part 1: Mechanical studies. J. Mat. Sci. 21, 2462.
Kirshenbaum, S.L. and Bell, J.P. (1985) Matrix viscoelasticity: controlling factor in rubber toughening epoxy resins. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 30, 1985.
Lee, W.H., Hodd, K.A. and Wright, W.W. (1985) The influence of crosslink density on the toughness of rubber modified epoxy resins. Proc. Int. Conf. Adhesives, Sealants and Encapsulant—1, Network Events Ltd, Plastic and Rubber Institute, London, p. 144.
Pocius, A.V. (1987) Third generation 2-part epoxy adhesives. 19th International SAMPE Tech. Conf., Oct 13–15, p. 312.
Lee, W.H. (1986) Elastomer modified epoxy resins (toughening of TGDDM-DDS epoxy) Ph.D Thesis, Brunel University of West London.
British Patent Application No. 8928181.
Yang, P.C., Woo, E.P., Bishop, M.T. and Pickelmaan, D.M. (1990) Rubber toughening of thermosets—A system approach. Polym. Mat. Sci. Eng. (preprints) 63, 315.
Shaw, S.J. and Kinloch, A.J. (1984) High temperature adhesives. Proc. Int. Adhesion Conf., The Plastics and Rubber Institute, Chapter 3.
Stanzenberger, H., Konig, P., Herzog, M. and Romer, W. (1987) Toughened bismaleimides: Concepts, achievements, directions. Proc. 19th Int. SAMPE Tech. Conf., October, Virginia, p. 372.
Hunston, D.L., Moulton, R.J., Johnston, N.J. and Bascom, W.D. (1987) Matrix resin effects in composite delamination: Mode 1 fracture aspects in Toughened Composites Johnston, N.J., ed., Symposium on Toughened Composite, ASTM. STP937, p. 74.
Lee, W.H. (1989) The influence of neat resin properties in composites. Proc. 1st Japan Int. SAMPE symposium, Tokyo, Nov. 1989, p. 576.
Raghava, R.S. (1988) Development and characterisation of thermosetting-thermoplastic polymer blends for application in damage tolerence composites. J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Phys. 26, 65.
Raghava, R.S. (1987) Role of matrix-particle interface adhesion on fracture toughness of dual phase epoxy-polyethersulfone blends. J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Phys. 25, 1017.
Bucknall, C.B. and Gilbert, A.H. (1989) Toughening of tetrafunctional epoxy resins using polyetherimide. Polymer 30, 213.
Hourston, D.J. and Lane, J.M. (1992) The toughening of epoxy resins with thermoplastics: 1. Trifunctional epoxy resin—polyetherimide blends. Polymer 33, 1379.
Hedrick, J.L., Yilgor, I., Hedrick, J.C., Wilkes, G.L. and McGrath, J.E. (1985) Proc. 30th National SAMPE Symposium, Covina, California, March 19–21, p. 947.
Yamanaka, K. and Inoue, T. (1989) Structure development in epoxy resin modified with poly-(ether sulphone). Polymer 30, 662.
Cecera, J.A. and McGrath, J.E. (1986) Morphology and properties of amine terminated poly(arylether ketone) and poly(arylether sulphone) modified epoxy resin systems. Polymer (preprints), 27, 299.
Shimp, D.A., Christenson, J.R. and Ising, S.J. (1990) Cyanate Ester Resins—Chemistry, Properties and Applications. Hi-Tek Polymers, Inc., Louisville.
Cantwell, W.J. and Roulin-Moloney, A.C. (1989) Fractography and failure mechanism of unifilled and particulate filled epoxy resins in Fractography and Failure Mechanisms of Polymers Roulin-Moloney, A.C., ed., Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Chapter 7, p. 244.
Spanoudakis, J. and Young, R.J. (1984) Crack propagation in a glass particle filled epoxy resin. Part 2: Effect of particle matrix adhesion. J. Mat. Sci. 19, 487.
Kinloch, A.J., Maxwell, D.L. and Young, R.J. (1985) The fracture of hybrid-particulate composites. J. Mat. Sci. 20, 4169.
Low, I.M., Mai, Y.W., Bandyopadhay, S. and Silva, V.M. (1987) in Proc. 1987 Australian Fracture Group Symposium. Mai, Y.W., ed., Sydney, Australia, p. 77.
Galbriath, S.T., McClusky, J., Orton, M.L. and Nield, E. (1985) Morphology and properties of interpenetrating network derived from polyurethane and polyethacrylates. Proc. Int. Conf. Toughening of Plastics—II. The plastics and Rubber Institute, July, London.
Hartness, J.T. (1985) A dicyanate semi-IPN (SIPn) matrix composite in Toughened Composites, Johnston, N.J., ed., STP 937, p. 453.
Sefton, M.S., McGrail, P.T., Peacock, J.A, Wilkinson, S.P., Crick, R.A., Davies, M. and Almen, G. (1987) Semi-interpenetrating polymer networks as a route to toughening of epoxy resin matrix composites, Lynch, T., Presh, J., Wolf, T. and Rupert, N., eds., Proc. 19th Int. SAMPE Tech. Conf. October 13–15, Virginia, p. 700.
Hanky, A.O. and St Clair, T.L. (1986) SAMPE J. 21, 40.
Pater, R.H. (1991) Interpenetrating polymer network approach to tough and microcracking resistance high temperature polymers. Part II, Larc-RP41. Polym. Eng. Sci. 31 (1), 20.
Lee, W.H., Hodd, K.A. and Wright, W.W. (1992) Plastic deformation in rubber modified crosslink epoxy. J. Mat. Sci. 27, 4582.
Sternstein, S.S. and Ongchin, L. (1969) Yield criteria for plastic deformation of glassy high polymer in general stress fields. ACS Polymer Preprints 10 (2) 1117.
Kambour, R.P. (1964) Structures and properties of crazes in polycarbonate and other glassy polymers. Polymer 5, 143.
Bucknall, C.B. and Smith, R.R. (1965) Stress-whitening in high impact polystyrene. Polymer 6, 437.
Bucknall, C.B., Clayton, D. and Keast, W.E. (1972) Rubber toughened plastics—Part 2: Creep mechanisms in HIPS/PPO. J. Mat. Sci. 7, 1443.
Donald, A.M. and Kramer, E.J. (1982) The competition between shear deformation and crazing in glassy polymers. J. Mat. Sci. 17, 1871.
Kambour, R.P. (1973) A review of crazing and fracture in thermoplastics. J. Polym. Sci., Macromolecular Reviews 7, 1.
Donald, A.M. and Kramer, E.J. (1982) Interaction of crazes with pre-existing shear bands in glassy polymers. J. Mat. Sci. 17, 1739.
Melander, A. and Staklberg, U. (1980) The effects of void size and distribution on ductile fracture. Int. J. Fracture 16, 431.
Needleman, A (1972) Void growth in an elastic-plastic medium. J. Appl. Meek., Trans, ASME, 964.
Gurson, A.L. (1977) Continum theory of ductile rupture by void nucleation and growth. Part 1: Yield criteria and flow rules for porous ductile media, J. Eng. Mat. Tech., Trans., ASME, 99, 2.
Yamamoto, H. (1978) Conditions for shear localisation in the ductile fracture of void containing materials. Int. J. Fracture 14, 347.
Trevgaard, V. (1981) Influence of voids on shear band instabilities under plain strain conditions. Int. J. Fracture 17, 389.
Hobbs, S.Y. (1977) Fracture toughness of PC structural foams. J. Appl. Phys. 48, 4052.
Yee, A.F. (1977) The yield and deformation behaviour of some polycarbonate blends. J. Mat. Sci. 12, 757.
Yee, A.F. and Kambour, R.P. (1978) Fracture toughness studies on rubber toughened polymers. Proc. Int. Conf. Toughening of Plastics, The Plastic and Rubber Institute, London.
Maxwell, M.A. and Yee, A.F. (1981) The effects of strain rate on the toughening mechanisms of rubber modified plastics. Polym. Eng. Sci. 21, 205.
Boggreve, R.J.M., Gaymans, R.J. and Eichenwald, H.M. (1989) Impact behaviour of nylon-rubber blends. 6: Influence of structure on voiding processes, toughening mechanism. Polymer 30, 78.
Gent, A.N. and Lindley, P.B. (1958) Internal rupture of bonded rubber cylinders in tension. Proc. Roy. Soc. A249, 195.
Huang, Y. and Kinloch, A.J. (1992) The toughness of epoxy polymers containing microvoids. Polymer 33 (6), 1330.
Evans, A.G., Ahmad, Z.B., Gilbert, D.G. and Beaumont, P.W.R. (1985) Mechanisms of toughening in rubber toughened polymers. Proc. Int. Conf. Toughening of Plastics—II. The Plastic and Rubber Institute, 2—4 July, London, Chapter 16.
Lange, F.F. (1970) The interaction of a crack front with a second-phase dispersion. Phil. Mag. 22, 983.
Evans, A.G. (1972) The strength of brittle materials containing second phase dispersions. Phil. Mag. 26, 1327.
Green, D.J. (1979) Fracture of a brittle particulate composite. Part 2: Theorectical aspets. J. Mat. Sci. 14, 1657.
Donald, A.M. and Kramer, E. (1982) Plastic deformation mechanisms in polyacylonitrile-butadiene styrene (ABS). J. Mat. Sci. 17, 1765.
Dillon, M. and Bevis, M.J. (1982) The microstructure and deformation of model ABS compounds. Part 2: The effect of graft frequency and rubber particle size. J. Mat. Sci. 17, 1903.
Sultan, J.N. and McGarry, F.J. (1973) Effect of rubber particle size on deformation mechanism in glassy epoxy. Polym. Sci. Eng. 13, 29.
Bascom, W.D., Ting, R.Y., Moulton, R.J., Riew, C.K. and Siebert, A.R. The fracture of an epoxy polymer containing elastomeric modifiers. J. Mat. Sci. 16, 2657.
Bevis, M.J. and Allen, P.S. (1987) Multi-live-feed injection moulding. Plast. Rubb. Proc. Appln. 7, 3.
Ibrahim, A.M., Quinlivan, T.J. and Saferis, J.C. (1986) Processing of PES reinforced high performance epoxy blends. Polymer Preprints 27, 277.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lee, W.H. (1993). Toughened polymers. In: Folkes, M.J., Hope, P.S. (eds) Polymer Blends and Alloys. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2162-0_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2162-0_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-4957-3
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-2162-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive