Abstract
There is a necessary relationship between research design, the welfare of research animals, and the validity of research data. This paper explores several dimensions of this relationship along with comments on the importance of ethologically informed design. Design, in the sense of a coherent programme that guides a specific scientific undertaking, involves defining and selecting research variables and the methods that govern their manipulation and/or observation, measurement and subsequent interpretation. Design both guides and is guided by the questions or problems an investigator wishes to address.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Art, G.R. and Claussen, D.L. (1982) The rate of thermal acclimation in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Copeia, 1982 (1), 189–91.
Avery, R. A. (1976) Thermoregulation, metabolism and social behavior in Lacertidae, in Morphology and Biology of Reptiles, (eds A. d’ A Bellairs and C.B. Cox), Academic Press, New York, pp. 245–59.
Axelrod, J. and Reisen, T.D. (1984) Stress hormones: their interaction and regulation. Science, 224, 452–9
Barnett, J.L. and Hemsworth, P.H. (1990) The validity of physiological and behavioural measures of animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 25, 177–87.
Bateson, P. (1991a) Assessment of pain in animals. Animal Behaviour, 42, 827–39.
Bateson, P. (1991b) Levels and processes, in The Development and Integration of Behaviour, (ed. P. Bateson), Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 3–16.
Bennett, A.F. (1980) The thermal dependence of lizard behaviour. Animal Behaviour, 28, 752–62.
Bogert, C.M. (1959) How reptiles regulate their body temperature. Scientific American, 200, 105–20.
Brattstrom, B.H. (1978) Learning studies in lizards, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), Bethesda, Maryland, National Institute of Mental Health, pp. 173–81.
Broverman, D.M., Klaiber, E.L., Vogal, W. and Kobayashi, Y. (1974) Short-term versus long-term effects of adrenal hormones on behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 672–94.
Burghardt, G.M. (1977) Learning processes in reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Volume 7, Ecology and Behaviour A, (eds C. Gans and D.W. Tinkle), Academic Press, New York, pp. 555–681.
Carpenter, C.C. (1977) Variation and evolution of stereotyped behavior in reptiles, Part 1. A survey of stereotyped reptilian behavioral patterns, in Biology of the Reptilia, Volume 7, Ecology and Behaviour A, (eds C. Gans and D.W. Tinkle), Academic Press, New York, pp. 335–403, 459–507.
Carpenter, C.C. (1980) An ethological approach to reproductive success in reptiles, in Reproductive Biology and Diseases of Captive Reptiles, SSAR Contributions to Herpetology, Number 1, (eds J.B. Murphy and J.T. Collins), Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, pp. 33–48.
Carter, R.J. and Shuster, S. (1982) The association between the melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor and the alpha-2 adrenoceptor on the Anolis melanophore. British Journal of Pharmacology, 75, 169–76.
Christian, J.J. (1980) Endocrine factors in population regulation, in Biosocial Mechanisms of Population Regulation (eds M.N. Cohen, R.S. Malpass and H.G. Klein), Yale, New Haven, pp. 55–115.
Cooper, W.E., Jr and N. Greenberg (1992) Reptilian coloration and behavior, in Hormones, Brain and Behavior, Volume 18, Biology of the Reptilia, (eds C. Gans and D. Crews), University of Chicago Press, pp. 298–422.
Cowles, R.B. and Bogert, C.M. (1944) A preliminary study of the thermal requirements of desert reptiles. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 83 (5), 261–96.
Crews, D. and Garrick, L.D. (1980) Methods of inducing reproduction in captive reptiles, in Reproductive Biology and Diseases of Captive Reptiles, SSAR Contributions to Herpetology, Number 1, (eds J.B. Murphy and J.T. Collins), Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, pp. 49–70.
Daut, E.F. and Andrews, R.M. (1993) The effect of pregnancy on thermoregulatory behavior of the viviparous lizard Chalcides ocellatus. Journal of Herpetology, 27 (1), 6–13.
DeLong, A.J., Greenberg, N. and Keaney, C. (1986) Temporal responses to environmental scale in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis (Reptilia, Lacertilia, Iguanidae). Behavioral Systems, 13, 339–52.
DeNardo, D.F. and Licht, P. (1993) Effects of corticosterone on social behavior of male lizards. Hormones and Behavior, 27, 184–99.
Dewsbury, D.A. (1992) On the problems studied in ethology, comparative psychology, and animal behavior. Ethology, 92, 89–107.
Edson, P.H. and Gallup, G.G., Jr (1972) Tonic immobility as a fear response in lizards (Anolis carolinensis). Psychonomics Science, 26, 27–8.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1970) Ethology, the Biology of Behaviour, 2nd edn, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 625 pp.
Eisner, R. (1991) Scientist roam the habitat as zoos alter their mission. The Scientist, 5 (11), 1, 10, 21.
Evans, L.T. (1951) Field study of the social behavior of the black lizard, Ctenosaura pectinata. American Museum Novitates, 1493, 1–26.
Font, E., Greenberg, N. and Switzer, R.C., III (1986) Brainstem origins of motoneurons controlling the hyoid contribution to the dewlap display of Anolis lizards. Proceedings of the Society for Neuroscience, 12 (1), 498 (abstract).
Font, E. (1991) Localization of brainstem motoneurons involved in dewlap extension in the lizard, Anolis equestris. Behaviour and Brain Research, 45, 171–6.
Gallup, G.G., Jr (1973) Simulated predation and tonic immobility in Anolis carolinensis. Copeia, 1973 (3), 623–4.
Gallup, G.G., Jr (1974) Animal hypnosis: Factual status of a fictional concept. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 836–53.
Garrick, L.D. (1974) Reproductive influences on behavioral thermoregulation in the lizard, Sceloporus cyanogenys. Physiology & Behaviour, 12, 85–91.
Gatten, R.E., Jr, Echternacht, A.C. and Wilson, M.A. (1988) Acclimatization versus acclimation of activity metabolism in lizard. Physiological Zoology, 61 (4), 322–9.
Goldman and Hadley (1970) Evidence for separate receptors for melanocyte-stimulating hormone and catecholamine regulation of cyclic AMP in the control of melanophore responses. Bristish Journal of Pharmacology, 39, 160–6.
Grassman, M. and Hess, D.L. (1992a) Sex differences in adrenal function in the lizard Cnemidophorus sexlineatus: I: seasonal variation in the field. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 264, 177–182.
Grassman, M. and Hess, D.L. (1992b) Sex differences in adrenal function in the lizard Cnemidophorus sexlineatus: II: responses to acute stress in the laboratory. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 264, 183–8.
Greenberg, B. and Noble, G.K. (1944) Social behavior of the American chameleon (Anolis carolinensis Voight). Physiological Zoology, 17 (4), 392–439.
Greenberg, N. (1976) Thermoregulatory aspects of behavior in the blue spiny lizard, Sceloporus cyanogenys (Sauria, Iguanidae). Behaviour, 59, 1–21.
Greenberg, N. (1978) Ethological considerations in the experimental study of lizard behavior, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), Bethesda, MD, National Institute of Mental Health, pp. 203–26.
Greenberg, N. (1983) Central and autonomic aspects of aggression and dominance in reptiles, in Advances in Vertebrate Neuroethology, (eds J.P. Ewert, R.R. Capranica and D.J. Ingle), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 1135–43.
Greenberg, N. (1985) Exploratory behavior and stress in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 70, 89–102.
Greenberg, N. (1990) Behavioral endocrinology of physiological stress in a lizard. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Supplement, 4, 170–3.
Greenberg, N. (1992) The saurian psyche revisited: Lizards in research, in The Care and Use of Amphibians, Reptiles and Fish in Research, (eds D.O. Schaeffer, K.M. Kleinow and L. Krulisch), Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, Bethesda, MD, pp. 75–91.
Greenberg, N. (1993) Tongue-flicking and exploratory behavior in Anolis carolinensis. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, 41, 210–8.
Greenberg, N. and Crews, D. (1990) Endocrine and behavioral responses to aggression and social dominance in the green anole lizard, Anolis carolinensis. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 11, 1–10.
Greenberg, N. and Hake, L. (1990) Hatching and neonatal behavior of the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Journal of Herpetology, 24 (4), 402–5.
Greenberg, N. and Lumsden, S. (1990) Social dominance and reproductive activity in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. American Zoologist, 29 (4), 105 (abstract).
Greenberg, N. and Wingfield, J. (1987) Stress and reproduction: Reciprocal relationships, in Reproductive Endocrinology of Fish, Amphibians, and Reptiles, (eds D.O. Norris and R.E. Jones), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 461–503.
Greenberg, N., Chen, T. and Crews, D. (1984) Social status, gonadal state, and the adrenal stress response in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Hormones and Behavior, 18, 1–11.
Greene, H.W. (1988) Antipredator mechanisms in reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Volume 16, (eds C. Gans and R.B. Huey), John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 1–152.
Hadley, M.E. and Goldman, J.M. (1969) Physiological color changes in reptiles. American Zoologist, 9, 489–504.
Harwood, R.H. (1979) The effect of temperature on the digestive efficiency of three species of lizards, Cnemidophorus tigris, Gerrhonotus multicarinatus and Sceloporus occidentalis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 63A, 417–33.
Heath, J.E. (1965) Temperature regulation and diurnal activity in horned lizards. University of California Publications in Zoology, 64 (3), 97–136.
Heatwole, H. (1968) Relationship of escape behavior and camouflage in anoline lizards. Copeia, 1968 (1), 109–13.
Hediger, H. (1950) Wild Animals in Captivity. Buttersworth, London. Republished by Dover Publ., New York, 1968.
Hediger, H. (1955) The Psychology and Behavior of Animals in Zoos and Circuses, Buttersworth, London. Republished by Dover Publ., New York, 1968.
Hennessy, J.W. and Levine, S. (1979) Stress, arousal, and the pituitary adrenal system: a psychoendocrine hypothesis. Progress in Physiological Psychology, 8, 133–78.
Hennig, C.W. (1979) The effects of physical environment, time in captivity, and defensive distance on tonic immobility, freezing, and flight behaviors in Anolis carolinensis. Animal Learning and Behavior, 7 (1), 106–10.
Hertz, P.E., Huey, R.B. and Nevo, E. (1982) Fight versus flight: body temperature influences defensive responses of lizards. Animal Behaviour, 30, 676–9.
Hunsaker, D. and Burrage, B.R. (1969) The significance of interspecific social dominance in iguanid lizards. American Midland Naturalist, 81, 500–11.
Hutchison, V.H. and Kosh, R.J. (1965) The effect of photoperiod on the critical thermal maxima of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta). Herpetologica, 20 (4), 233–8.
Hutchison, V.H., Dowling, H.G. and Vinegar, A. (1966) Thermoregulation in a brooding female Indian python, Python molurus bivittatus. Science, 151, 694–6.
Jenssen, T.A., Greenberg, N. and Hovde, K.A. (1994) Behavioral profile of free-ranging male Anolis carolinensis across breeding and post-breeding seasons. Herpetological Monograph, in press.
Johnson, E.O., Kamilaris, T.C., Chrousos, G. and Gold, P.W. (1992) Mechanisms of stress: A dynamic overview of hormonal and behavioral homeostasis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 16, 115–30.
Kleinholz, L.H. (1938) Studies in reptilian color change III. Control of light phase and behavior of isolated skin. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 15, 492–9.
Langer, S.K. (1957) Problems of Art, Scribners, New York.
Larson, M.W. (1961) The critical thermal maximum of the lizard Sceloporus occidentalis occidentalis Baird and Girard. Herpetologica, 17 (2), 113–22.
Lehrman, D.S. (1965) Interaction of internal and external environments in the regulation of the reproductive cycle of the ring dove, in Sex and Behavior (ed. F.A. Beach), Wiley & Sons, New York, 355–80.
Leshner, A. (1978) An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology, Oxford, New York, 361 pp.
Licht, P. (1964a) The temperature dependence of myosin-adenosinetriphosphatase and alkaline phosphatase in lizards. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 12, 331–40.
Licht, P. (1964b) A comparative study of the thermal dependence of contractility in saurian skeletal muscle. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 13, 27–34.
Licht, P. (1967) Environmental control of annual testicular cycles in the lizard Anolis carolinensis. I. Interaction of light and temperature in the initiation of testicular recrudescence. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 165, 505–616.
Licht, P. (1968) Response of the thermal preferendum and heat resistance to thermal acclimation under different photoperiods in the lizard Anolis carolinensis. American Midland Naturalist, 79 (1), 149–58.
Licht, P. (1971) Regulation of the annual testis cycle by photoperiod and temperature in the lizard Anolis carolinensis. Ecology, 52, 240–52.
Licht, P. and Bradshaw, S.D. (1969) A demonstration of corticotropic activity and its distribution in the pars distalis of the reptile. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 13, 226–35.
Mahoney, C.J. (1992) Opinion: Some thoughts of psychological enrichment. Laboratory Animal, May, 21–31.
Marcellini, D.L. and Jenssen, T.A. (1991) Avoidance learning by the curly-tailed lizard, Leiocephalus schreibersi: Implications for anti-predator behavior. Journal of Herpetology, 25 (2), 238–41.
Mayr, E. (1974) Behavior programs and evolutionary strategies. American Scientist, 62, 650–9.
McBride, G. (1976) The study of social organizations. Behaviour, 59, (1–2), 96–115.
McNight, R.R., Copperberg, G.F. and Ginter, E.J (1978) Duration of tonic immobility in lizards (Anolis carolinensis) as a function of repeated immobilization, frequent handling, and laboratory maintenance. Psychological Record, 28, 549–56.
Medvin, M.B. (1990) Sex differences in coloration and optical signalling in the lizard Anolis carolinensis (Reptilia, Lacertilia, Iguanidae). Animal Behaviour, 39, 192–3.
Meier, A.H., Trobec, T.N., Haymaker, R. et al. (1973) Daily variations in the effects of handling on fat storage and testicular weight in several vertebrates. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 184, 281–8.
Moehn, L.D. (1974) The effect of quality of light on agonistic behavior of iguanid and agamid lizards. Herpetologica, 8 (2), 175–83.
Morris, D. (1956) The function and causation of courtship ceremonies, in L’instinct dans le comportement des animaux et de l’homme (eds M. Autuori et al.), Masson et Cie, Paris, pp. 261–86.
Morton, D.B., Burghardt, G.M. and Smith, J.A. (1990) Critical anthropomorphism, animal suffering, and the ecological context, in Animals, Science and Ethics, (eds S. Donnelley and K. Nolan), Hastings Center Report, 20 (3), 13–9.
Norris, K.S. (1953) The ecology of the desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis. Ecology, 34, 265–87.
Novak, M.A. and Suomi, S.J. (1988) Psychological well-being of primates in captivity. American Psychologist, 43 (1), 765–73.
Orlans, F.B. (1988) Impact on animal care and use committees, in Field Research Guidelines, Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, Bethesda, Maryland.
Orlans, F.B. (1990) Policy issues in the use of animals in research, testing, and education, in Animals, Science and Ethics, (eds S. Donnelley and K. Nolan), Hastings Center Report, May/June Supplement, pp. 25–30.
Pearson, A.K., Tsui, H.W. and Licht, P. (1976) Effect of temperatures on spermatogenesis, on the production and action of androgens and on the ultrastructure of gonadotropic cells in the lizard Anolis carolinensis. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 195, 291–304.
Pough, F.H. (1980) The advantages of ectothermy for tetrapods. The American Naturalist, 115 (1), 92–112.
Prosser, C.L. (1986) Adaptational Biology: Molecules to Organisms, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Rand, A.S. (1964) Inverse relationship between temperature and shyness in the lizard Anolis lineatopus. Ecology, 45, 863–4.
Ragland, I.M., Wit, L.C. and Sellers, J.C. (1981) Temperature acclimation in the lizards Cnemidophorus sexlineatus and Anolis carolinensis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 70A, 33–6.
Regal, P.J. (1966) Thermophilic response following feeding in certain reptiles. Copeia, 1966 (3), 589–90.
Regal, P.J. (1980) Temperature and light requirements of captive reptiles, in Reproductive Biology and Diseases of Captive Reptiles, SSAR Contributions to Herpetology, Number 1, (eds J.B. Murphy and J.T. Collins), Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, pp. 79–89.
Rociia, C.F.D. and Bergallo, H.G. (1990) Thermal biology and flight distance of Tropidurus oreadicus (Sauria, Iguanidae) in an area of Amazonian Brazil. Ethology, Ecology and Evolution, 2, 263–8.
Rodda, G.H., Bock, B.C., Burghardt, G.M. and Rand, A.S. (1988) Techniques for identifying individual lizards at a distance reveal influences of handling. Copeia, 1988 (4), 905–13.
Sandman, C.A., Kastin, A.J., Shally, A.V. et al. (1973) Neuroendocrine responses to physical and psychological stress. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology, 34, 386–90.
Schwarzkopf, L. and Shine, R. (1991) Thermal biology of reproduction in viviparous skinks, Eulamprus tympanum: why do gravid females bask more? Oecologia, 88, 562–9.
Sherman, P.W. (1988) The levels of analysis. Animal Behaviour, 36 (2), 616–9.
Shine, R. (1980) ‘Costs’ of reproduction in reptiles. Oecologia, 46, 92–100.
Stamps, J.A. (1976) Egg retention, rainfall and egg laying in a tropical lizard, Anolis aeneus. Copeia, 1976, 759–64.
Suboski, M.D. (1992) Releaser-induced recognition learning by amphibians and reptiles. Animal Learning and Behavior, 20 (1), 63–82.
Sugerman, R.A. (1990) Observer effects in Anolis sagrei. Journal of Herpetology, 24 (3), 316–7.
Sugerman, R.A. and Hacker, R.A. (1980) Observer effects on collared lizards. Journal of Herpetology, 14 (2), 188–90.
Summers, C.H. (1988) Chronic low-humidity stress in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis: Effects on ovarian and oviductal recrudescence. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 248, 192–8.
Summers, C.H. and Greenberg, N. (1994) Somatic correlates of adrenergic activity during aggression in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Hormones and Behavior, 28, 29–40.
Tinbergen, N. (1951) The Study of Instinct, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Tokarz, R.R. (1987) Effects of corticosterone treatment on male aggressive behavior in a lizard (Anolis sagrei). Hormones and Behavior, 21, 358–70.
Vaughan, G.L. and Greenberg, N. (1987) Propranolol, a beta-adrenergic antagonist, retards response to MSH in skin of Anolis carolinensis. Physiology and Behavior, 40, 555–8.
Vogt, J.L., Coe, C.L. and Levine, S. (1981) Behavioral and adrenocorticoid responsiveness of squirrel monkeys to a live snake: Is flight necessarily stressful? Behavioral and Neural Biology, 32, 391–405.
von Uexkull, J. (1989) Umwelt und Innenwelt der Tiere, Springer, Berlin. Translated and excerpted in Foundations of Comparative Ethology (ed. G.M. Burghardt), Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 222–45.
Warwick, C. (1990) Reptilian ethology in captivity: Observations of some problems and an evaluation of their aetiology. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 26, 1–13.
Warwick, C. (1991) Observations on disease-associated preferred body temperatures in reptiles. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 28, 375–80.
Warwick, C., Steedman, C., Kimm, V. and Holford, T. (1992) Ethological and biological considerations of reptiles in scientific research. A Report to the Commission of the European Communities, November 1992, 50 pp.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Greenberg, N. (1995). Ethologically informed design in husbandry and research. In: Warwick, C., Frye, F.L., Murphy, J.B. (eds) Health and Welfare of Captive Reptiles. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1222-2_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1222-2_11
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-0403-2
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-1222-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive