Abstract
The seventh Solvay Conference, held at the Free University of Brussels from October 22–29, 1933,1 occupies a place in the history of nuclear physics similar to the one that the first Solvay Conference, held twenty- two years earlier in the Hotel Métropole in Brussels, occupies in the history of quantum physics. Both were the first to be devoted to their respective areas of physics; both were held soon after fundamental discoveries had opened up and transformed their fields; and both served to consolidate knowledge that had been gained and to expose problems that awaited solutions. Martin J. Klein has discussed the first Solvay Conference in his writings.2 In this paper, I shall examine the seventh Solvay Conference, using it as a vantage point from which to view the social and political currents and the theoretical and experimental developments that were buffeting and transforming nuclear physics in the fall of 1933.
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Martin J. Klein, “Einstein, Specific Heats, and the Early Quantum Theory,” Science 148 (1965): 173–180; Paul Ehrenfest, vol. I, The Making of a Theoretical Physicist (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1970), pp. 251-252, 257-258.
James Chadwick, “Possible Existence of a Neutron,” Nature 129 (1932): 312.
Harold C. Urey, F.G. Brickwedde, and G.M. Murphy, “A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2,” Physical Review 39 (1932): 164–165.
Carl D. Anderson, “The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives,” Science 76 (1932): 238–239
Carl D. Anderson, “The Positive Electron,” Physical Review 39 (1933): 491–494
Carl D. Anderson, latter reprinted in Foundations of Nuclear Physics: Facsimiles of Thirteen Fundamental Studies as They Were Originally Reported in the Scientific Journals, Robert T. Beyer, ed. (New York: Dover, 1949), pp. 1–4.
E.O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston, “The Production of High Speed Light Ions without the Use of High Voltages,” Physical Review 40 (1932): 19–35
J.D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton, “Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. I. Further Developments in the Method of Obtaining High Velocity Positive Ions,” Proceedings of the Royal Society A 136 (1932): 619–630
J.D. Cockcroft and E.T.S. Walton Both papers reprinted in The Development of High-Energy Accelerators, M. Stanley Livingston, ed. (New York: Dover, 1966), pp. 118–134 and 11-23.
Roger H. Stuewer, “Artificial Disintegration and the Cambridge-Vienna Controversy,” in Observation, Experiment, and Hypothesis in Modern Physical Science, Peter Achinstein and Owen Hannaway, eds. (Cambridge, Mass, and London: The MIT Press, 1985), pp. 239–307.
Bernard Lovell, P.M.S. Blacken: A Biographical Memoir (London: The Royal Society, 1976), p.
Nevill Mott, A Life in Science (London and Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1986), p. 46
Rudolf Peierls, Bird of Passage: Recollections of a Physicist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 99–100.
See for example H. Maier-Leibnitz, “Walther Bothe (1891–1957),” Physikalische Blätter 47 (1991): 62–64.
Hendrik B.G. Casimir, Haphazard Reality: Haif a Century of Science (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), pp. 148–150.
George Gamow, My World Line: An Informal Autobiography (New York: Viking, 1970), pp. 28–54.
George Gamow, “Zur Quantentheorie des Atomkernes,” Zeitschrift für Physik 51 (1928): 204–212
H. Stuewer, “Gamow’s Theory of Alpha-Decay,” in The Kaleidoscope of Science, Edna Ullmann-Margalit, ed. (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1986), pp. 147–186.
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960), p. 241. For the other events see Shirer, ch. 7, pp. 188-230, and Edward Yarnall Hartshorne, Jr., The German Universities and National Socialism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1937), pp. 14-
Stephen Duggan and Betty Drury, The Rescue of Science and Learning: The Story of the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced Foreign Scholars (New York: Macmil-lan, 1948).
Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions (New York: Bonanza, 1954), pp. 205–209
Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden, eds., Einstein on Peace (New York: Avenel, 1960), pp. 215–216
W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (New York: World, 1971), pp. 463–464.
Helge Kragh, Dirac: A Scientific Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 139.
A. Einstein, “Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Fol-gerungen,” Jahrbuch für Radioaktivität und Elektronik 4 (1907): 443. For a full discussion, see Daniel M. Siegel, “Classical-Electromagnetic and Relativistic Approaches to the Problem of Nonintegral Atomic Masses,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 9 (1978): 323-360.
F.W. Astron, Mass-Spectra and Isotopes (London: Arnold, 1933), p. 73.
Kenneth T. Bainbridge, “The Equivalence of Mass and Energy,” Physical Review 44 (1933): 123. pénétrant des Atomes sous l’Action des Rayons α,” ibid., pp. 121-156.
Roger H. Stuewer, “Mass-Energy and the Neutron in the Early Thirties,” Science in Context 6 (1993): 195–238.
James Chadwick, “The Existence of a Neutron,” Proceedings of the Royal Society A 4 (1932): 692–708; reprinted in Beyer, Foundations, pp. 5-21.
E. Rutherford, “Nuclear Constitution of Atoms,” Proceedings of the Royal Society A 97 (1920): 374–400; reprinted in The Collected Papers of Lord Rutherford of Nelson O.M., F.R.S., James Chadwick, ed. (London: Allen and Unwin, 1965), vol. 3, pp. 14-38, esp. 34.
See for example, James Chadwick, “The Neutron,” Proceedings of the Royal Society A 142 (1933): 1–25.
E.O. Lawrence, M.S. Livingston, and G.N. Lewis, “The Emission of Protons from Various Targets Bombarded by Deutons of High Speed,” Physical Review 44 (1933): 56.
M.S. Livingston, Malcolm C. Henderson, and E.O. Lawrence, “Neutrons from Deutons and the Mass of the Neutron,” Physical Review 44 (1933): 781–782; quote on p. 782.
I. Curie and F. Joliot, “La complexité du proton et la masse du neutron,” Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences 197 (1933): 237–238; reprinted in Oeuvres Scientifiques Complètes (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961), pp. 417-418.
H.R. Crane, C.C. Lauritsen, and A. Soltan, “Production of Neutrons by High Speed Deutons,” Physical Review 44 (1933): 692–693
W. Bothe, “Das Neutron und das Positron,” Die Naturwissenschaften 21 (1933): 825–831; quote on p. 830.
Roger H. Stuewer, “The Origin of the Liquid-Drop Model and the Interpretation of Nuclear Fission,” Perspectives on Science 2 (1994): 76–129.
G. Gamow, “Discussion on the Structure of Atomic Nuclei,” Proceedings of the Royal Society A 123 (1929): 386–387.
G. Gamow, “Mass Defect Curve and Nuclear Constitution,” ibid. 126 (1930): 632–644.
W. Heisenberg, “Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I,” Zeitschrift für Physik 77 (1932): 1–11; “II,” ibid. 78 (1932): 156-164; “III,” ibid. 80 (1933): 587-596.
Ettore Majorana, “Über die Kerntheorie,” ibid. 82 (1933): 137–145.
L. Meitner and W. Orthmann, “Über eine absolute Bestimmung der Energie der primären β-Strahlen von Radium E,” Zeitschrift für Physik 60 (1930): 143–155.
E. Fermi, “Radioattività indotta da Bombardamento di Neutroni. — I,” Ricerca. Scientifica 5 (1934): 283 reprinted in Collected Papers, vol. 1, pp. 645-646.
C.F.v. Weizsäcker, “Zur Theorie der Kernmassen,” Zeitschrift für Physik 96 (1935): 431–458.
Hans A. Bethe and Robert F. Bacher, “Nuclear Physics. A. Stationary States of Nuclei,” Reviews of Modern Physics 8 (1936): 165–168.
Niels Bohr, “Neutron Capture and Nuclear Constitution,” Nature 137 (1936): 344–348; reprinted in Collected Works, vol. 9, pp. 152-156.
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Stuewer, R.H. (1995). The Seventh Solvay Conference: Nuclear Physics at the Crossroads. In: Kox, A.J., Siegel, D.M. (eds) No Truth Except in the Details. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 167. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0217-9_15
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