Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Psychology of Learning

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
International Handbook of Research in Medical Education

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE,volume 7))

Summary

In this chapter we will attempt to connect the phenomenon of learning, as it is viewed by medical educators, with former and contemporary learning theories, known principles, and research findings from the domain of general psychology. In many studies in medical education, the issue of learning is addressed; however, in only a minority of them is an attempt made to analyze medical students’ learning and to determine the factors that influence this learning. To a large extent, this is a consequence of the traditionally large gap between the study of learning in psychology and the various complex forms of learning that occur in higher education, including medical school. However, during the last decades, the psychology of learning and of expertise development has increasingly focused on the topic of advanced knowledge acquisition, which can be viewed as a middle ground between the fundamentals of learning and the various forms of learning that operate in medical education.

We will start this chapter with a concise overview ofresearch on and theories of learningfrom an historical point ofview. Subsequently, we will discuss the current state of the art with respect to learning. A distinction will be made between of learning. Broadly speaking, current psychological and educational theories psychological theories oflearning deal with what is going on in the mind of the learner during the learning process, and they tend to focus on processes within the learner, or on the influence ofindividual aspects ofthe context in which learning takes place (e.g., details ofthe learning task). Educational theories oflearning, on the other hand, are tailored for application in contextsthat are deliberately designed to foster orfacilitate learning. Though their grain size is much coarser, educational theories are better able to deal with ecologically important factors such as teaching and instruction. Nevertheless, throughout the text, we will try to connecteducational studies with morefundamental research on learning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 429.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ahn, W., Brewer, W. F., & Mooney, R. J. (1992). Schema acquisition from a single example.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition 18391–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alba, J. W., & Hasher, L. (1983). Is memory schematic?Psychological Bulletin 93203–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. R. (1982) Acquisition of cognitive skill.Psychological Review 89369–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AndersonJ.R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Situated learning and education.Educational Researcher25(4), 5–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, L., & Feighny, K. M. (1995). Students’ general learning approaches and performances in medical school.Academic Medicine 70715–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material.Journal of Educational Psychology 51267–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ausubel, D. P. (1962). A subsumption theory of meaningful verbal learning and retention.Journal of General Psychology 66213–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ausubel, D. P. (1963).The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. An introduction to school learning.NewYork: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ausubel, D. P. (1968).Educational psychology: A cognitive view.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ausubel, D. P. (1980). Cognitive psychology and medical education.Academic Psychology Bulletin2, 23–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ausubel, D. P., & Youssef, M. (1963). Role of discriminability in meaningful parallel learning.Journal of Educational Psychology 54331–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balson, M. (1967). Programmed learning in medical instruction.Medical Journal of Australia2(4, Jul 22), 176–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, R. W. (1987). Surgical handicraft: Teaching and learning surgical skills.American Journal of Surgery 153422–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrows, H. S. (1983). Problem-based, self-directed learning.Journal of the American Medical Association250(22), 3077–3080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, F. C. (1932).Remembering. A study in experimental and social psychology.Cambridge, UK: The Syndics of the Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bereiter, C. (1985). Toward a solution of the learning paradox.Review of Educational Research 55201–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bereiter, C. (1990). Aspects of an educational learning theory.Review of Educational Research 60603–624.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bligh, J. G. (1992). Independent learning among general practice trainees: an initial survey.Medical Education 26497–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Kratwohl, D. R. (1956).Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I. Cognitive domain.New York: Longmans, Green.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bobrow, D. B., & Norman, D. A. (1975). Some principles of memory schemata. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.)Representation and understanding. Studies in cognitive science(pp. 72–92). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boshuizen, H. P. A. (1996). The shock of practice: Effects on clinical reasoning. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, April 8–14, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1976). Toward a framework for understanding learning.Psychology of Learning and Motivation 1093–127 (G. H. Bower, Ed.).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bransford, J. D., Stein, B. S., Shelton, T. S., & Owings, R. A. (1981). Cognition and adaptation: The importance of learning to learn. In J. H. Harvey (Ed.)Cognition social behavior and the environment(pp. 93–110). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bransford, J. D., Stein, B. S., Vye, N. J., Franks, J. J., Auble, P. M., Mezynski, K. J., & Perfetto, G. A. (1982). Differences in approaches to learning: An overview.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 111390–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, D. E. (1994). Facilitating conceptual change using analogies and explanatory models.International Journal of Science Education16(2), 201–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.Educational Researcher18(January issue), 32–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charlin, B., Tardif, J., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2000). Scripts and medical diagnostic knowledge: theory and applications for clinical reasoning instruction and research.Academic Medicine75(2), 182–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices.Cognitive Science5, 121–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clement, J. (1988). Observed methods for generating analogies in scientific problem solving.Cognitive Science12(4), 563–586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clough, R. W., & Lehr, R. P. (1996). Testing knowledge of human gross anatomy in medical school.Clinical Anatomy9, 263–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A. J., Slovin, D. L., Franzblau, C.&Sinex, F. M. (1973). A self-paced biochemistry course for medical students.Journal of Medical Education 48289–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coles, C. R. (1990). Elaborated learning in undergraduate medical education.Medical Education 2414–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.)Knowing learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser(pp. 453–494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, J., Miller, S. S., & Albanese, M. A. (1997). Resident learning and knowledge retention from resident-prepared chest radiology conferences.Academic Radiology4(11), 732–735.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Custers, E. J. F. M., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Schmidt, H. G. (1996). The influence of medical expertise, case typicality and illness script component on case processing and disease probability estimates.Memory & Cognition 24384–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Custers, E. J. F. M., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Schmidt, H. G. (1998). The role of illness scripts in the development of medical diagnostic expertise: Results from an interview study.Cognition and Instruction16(4), 367–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolmans, D., & Schmidt, H. G. (1996). The advantages of problem-based curricula.Postgraduate Medical Journal72, 535–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, W. R. (1971). Programmed learning - Some practical and theoretical aspects.Scottish Medical Journal16(1), 32–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, H. C. (1965).The transfer of learning.New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elstein, A. S., Shulman, L. S., & Sprafka, S. A. (1978).Medical problem solving. An analysis of clinical reasoning.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ericksen, S. C. (1967). The zigzag curve of learning. In L. Siegel (Ed.)Instruction: Some contemporary viewpoints(pp. 141–179). San Francisco, CA: Chandler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eva, K. W., Neville, A. J., & Norman, G. R. (1998). Exploring the etiology of content specificity: Factors influencing analogic transfer and problem solving.Academic Medicine 73(10Suppl.), Sl-S5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, H. (1969). Learning transfer from programmed instmction to clinical performance. Nursing Research 18(1)51–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feltovich, P. J., & Barrows, H. S. (1984). Issues of generality in medical problem solving. In H. G. Schmidt & M. L. De Voider (Eds.)Tutorials in problem-based learning. New directions in training for the health professions(pp. 128–142). Assen/Maastricht, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feltovich, P. J., Coulson, R. L., Spiro, R. J., & Dawson-Saunders, B. K. (1992). Knowledge application and transfer for complex tasks in ill-structured domains: Implications for instruction and testing in biomedicine. In D. Evans & V. L. Patel (Eds.)Advanced models of cognition for medical training and practice(pp. 213242). New York: Springer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feltovich, P. J., Spiro, R., & Coulson, R. L. (1989). The nature of conceptual understanding in biomedicine: The deep structure of complex ideas and the development of misconceptions. In V. L. Patel & D. A. Evans (Eds.)Cognitive science in medicine(pp. 113–172). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiel, N. J. (1976). The lecture: Increasing student learning.Journal of Medical Education51(6), 496–499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flexner, A. (1910).Medical education in the United States and Canadaa report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Abraham Flexner, with an intro. by Henry S. Pritchett. New York: Heritage Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flexner, A. (1925).Medical education. A comparative study.New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, R. D., & West, R. F. (1983). Developing medical student competence in lifelong learning: the contract learning approach.Medical Education17, 247–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frase, L. T. (1973). Integration of written text.Journal of Educational Psychology 65252–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fry, H., & Jones, A. (1995). Self directed learning in the undergraduate dental curriculum.British Dental Journal179(10), 373–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gabrys, G., Weiner, A., & Lesgold, A. (1993). Learning by problem solving in a coached apprenticeship system. In M. Rabinowitz (Ed.)Cognitive science foundations of instruction(pp. 119–147). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • GagnĂ©, E. D., Yekovich, C. W.&Yekovich, F. R. (1993).The cognitive psychology of school learning2nded. New York: HarperCollins.

    Google Scholar 

  • GagnĂ©, R. M. (1965).The conditions of learning.New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, H. (1991).The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach.New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentner, D. (1983). Structure mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy.Cognitive Science7, 155–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving.Cognitive Psychology 12306–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gick, M. L.&Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer.Cognitive Psychology 151–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1987). The cognitive basis of knowledge transfer. In S. M. Cormier & J. D. Hagman (Eds.)Transfer of learning. Contemporary research and applications(pp. 9–46). San Diego, CA: Academic Press - Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass, A. L., Holyoak, K. J.&Santa, J. L. (1979).Cognition.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glynn, S. M. (1991). Explaining science concepts: A teaching-with-analogies model. In S. M. Glynn, R. H. Yeany, & B. K. Britton (Eds.)The psychology of learning science(pp. 219–240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater.British Journal of Psychology66(3), 325–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, V. J. (1987). Teaching medical students about other health professionals: an experiment in self-directed learning.Medical Teacher9, 271–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greeno, J. G., Collins, A. M., & Resnick, L. B. (1996). Cognition and learning. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds)Handbook of educational psychology(pp. 15–46). New York: Simon & Schuster-Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guetzkow, H., Kelly, E. L.&McKeachie, W. J. (1954). An experimental comparison of recitation, discussion, and tutorial methods in college teaching.Journal of Educational Psychology 45193–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. W. (1991). More on the utility of the keyword method.Journal of Educational Psychology 83171–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, D. A., & Tierney, R. J. (1982). Developing readers’ knowledge through analogy.Reading Research Quarterly 17256–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. R., & Simon, H. A. (1977). Psychological differences among problem isomorphs. In N. J. Castellan, D. B. Pisoni, & G. R. Potts (Eds), Cognitive theory, vol. 2 (pp. 21–44). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hmelo, C. E., Gotterer, G. S., & Bransford, J. D. (1997). A theory-driven approach to assessing the cognitive effects of PBL.Instructional Science25, 287–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstra, M. L., Hobus, P. P. M., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Schmidt, H. (1988).Diagnostiek bij huisartsen: het belang van gegevens uit de context van de patient.(Family physicians’ diagnoses: The importance of patient contextual information). Maastricht, Rijksuniversiteit Limburg: Onderzoek van Onderwijs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holding, D. H. (1987). Concepts of training. In G. Salvendy (Ed.)Handbook of human factors(pp. 939–962). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holyoak, K. J., & Koh, K. (1987). Surface and structural similarity in analogical transfer.Memory & Cognition 15332–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, R. W. (1995).Learning and memory. Major ideas principles issues and applications.Westport, CT: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, A. H., & Carroll, R. G. (1997). Incorporating active learning into a traditional curriculum.American Journal of Physiology 273S14–S23.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1912).Talks to teachers on psychology: And to students on some of life’s ideals.New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonassen, D. H., & Land, S. M. (Eds.). (2000).Theoretical foundations of learning environments.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, D. R., Patel, V. L., & Magder, S. A. (1996). The explanatory role of spontaneously generated analogies in reasoning about physiological concepts. International Journal of Science Education 18(3)369–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, F. S. (1968). Good-bye teacher.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis I79–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, F. S. (1971). A programmed system of instruction. In J. D. Stice (Ed.)The personalized system of instruction (PSI)(pp. 12–20). Austin, TX: Bureau of Engineering teaching, University of Texas College of Engineering.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, F. S. (1972). PSI: Its history and future. In A. J. Dessler (Ed.)Proceedings of the Keller Method Workshop Conference(pp. 2–5). Houston, TX: Rice University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, A. (1960). Principles of learning applied to medical study. In J. R. Ellis (Ed.)Methods of learning and techniques of teaching(pp. 73–84). London, UK: Pitman Medical.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kieras, D. E., & Bovair, S. (1984). The role of a mental model in learning to operate a device.Cognitive Science 8255–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kingsley, H. L. (1957).The nature and conditions of learning(2nded., revised by R. Garry). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, M. S. (1975).Self-directed learning. A guide for learners and teachers.Cambridge, UK: The Adult Education Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, D. (1984).Experiential learning.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krahn, C. G., & Blanchaer, M. C. (1986). Using an advance organizer to improve knowledge application by medical students in computer-based clinical simulations.Journal of Computer-Based Instruction13(3), 71–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulhavy, R. W., & Swenson, I. (1975). Imagery instructions and the comprehension of text.British Journal of Educational Psychology 4547–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. C., & Cohen, P. A. (1979). A meta-analysis of outcome studies of Keller’s personalized system of instruction.American Psychologist34(4), 307–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langley, P., & Simon, H. A. (1981). The central role of learning in cognition. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.)Cognitive skills and their acquisition(pp. 361–380). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, A. E. (1993). The importance of analogy: a prelude to the special issue.Journal of Research in Science Teaching30(10), 1213–1214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, R. D. (1962). Learning anatomy by invention.Lancet i156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesgold, A. M. (1984). Acquiring expertise. In J. R. Anderson, & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.)Tutorials in learning and memory. Essays in honor of Gordon Bower(pp. 31–60). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M. W., & Anderson, J. R. (1985). Discrimination of operator schemata in problem solving: Learning from examples.Cognitive Psychology 1726–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linden, M.&Wittrock, M. C. (1981). The teaching of reading comprehension according to the model of generative learning.Reading Research Quarterly 1744–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonka, K., Lindblom, Y., & Maury, S. (1994). The effect of study strategies on learning from text.Learning and Instruction 4253–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ludmerer, K. M. (1985).Learning to heal: The development of American medical education.New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann, K. V. (1994). Educating medical students: Lessons from research in continuing education. Academic Medicine 69(1)41–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, P. R., Abrahamson, S., & Dennis, D. A. (1968). Research in medical education. Comparison of four teaching techniques: programmed text, textbook, lecture-demonstration, lecture-workshop.Journal of Medical Education43(3), 356–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marris, D. (1964).The experience of higher education.London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCormick, C. B., & Levin, J. R. (1987). Mnemonic prose-learning strategies. In M. Pressley & M. McDaniel (Eds.)Imagery and related mnemonic processes. Theories individual differences and applications(pp. 392–406). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, B. J. F. (1977). The structure of prose: Effects on learning and memory and implications for educational practice. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.)Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge(pp. 179–200). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. E., Graser, H. P., Abrahamson, S., Harnack, R. S., Cohen, I. S.&Land, A. (1961).Teaching and learning in medical school.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, R., & Liu, P. L. (1995). A study of resident learning behavior.Teaching and Learning in Medicine7, 233–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffatt, D. J. (1974). Programmed learning in gross human anatomy.Journal of Medical Education49(10), 973–978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, J. L., & Rocklin, T. R. (1998). The distribution of distributed cognition: Multiple interpretations and uses. Educational Psychology Review 10(1)97–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MosĂ©l, J. N. (1964). The learning process.Journal of Medical Education39, 485–496.

    Google Scholar 

  • Needham, D. R., & Begg, I. M. (1991). Problem-oriented training promotes spontaneous analogical transfer: memory oriented training promotes memory for training.Memory & Cognition 19543–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, C. (1957).The evolution of medical education in the nineteenth century.London, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nnodim, J. O. (1988). Learning human anatomy: Does learning occur during a lecture?Medical Education22(2), 88–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norman, D. A. (1978). Notes toward a theory of complex learning. In A. M. Lesgold, J. W. Pellegrino, S. D. Fokkema, & R. Glaser (Eds.)Cognitive psychology and instruction(pp. 39–48). New York: Plenum Press..

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Norman, D. A. (1980). What goes on in the mind of the learner. In W. J. McKeachie (Ed.)New directions for teaching and learning.Vol. 2:Learning cognition and college teaching(pp. 37–49). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman, G. R., & Schmidt, H. G. (1992). The psychological basis of problem based learning: A review of the evidence.Academic Medicine 67557–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norman, G. R., Tugwell, P., Feightner, J. W., Muzzin, L. J., & Jacoby, L. L. (1995). Knowledge and clinical problem solving.Medical Education19, 344–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Notterman, J. M., & Drewry, H. N. (1993).Psychology and education: Parallel and interactive approaches.New York: Plenum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984).Learning how to learn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, R. J., & Wittrock, M. C. (1983). Learning science: A generative process.Science Education 67489–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Overing, R. L., & Travers, R. M. (1966). Effect upon transfer of variations in training conditions.Journal of Educational Psychology57(4), 179–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, S. G., Hall, R., Anderson, J., & Smart, G. A. (1965). Programmed learning in medical education.Postgraduate Medical Journal41(4), 201–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel, V. L., & Kaufman, D. R. (1995). Clinical reasoning and biomedical knowledge: Implications for teaching. In J. Higgs & M. Jones (Eds.)Clinical reasoning in the health professions(pp. 117–128). Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel, V. L., Evans, D. A., & Groen, G. J. (1989). Reconciling basic science and clinical reasoning. Teaching and Learning in Medicine1, 116–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patel, V. L., Groen, G. J.&Norman, G. R. (1991). Two modes of thought: A comparison of conventional and problem-based curricula.Academic Medicine 66380–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, J. (1992).Training: Research and practice.New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pazzani, M. (1991). Learning to predict and explain: An integration of similarity-based, theory driven, and explanation-based learning. Journal of the Learning Sciences 1(2)153–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peplow, P. V. (1990). Self-directed learning in anatomy: incorporation of case-based studies into a conventional medical curriculum.Medical Education 24426–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, S. M., Mathis, J. L., & Pishkin, V. (1968). Basic psychiatry in twelve hours: An experiment in programmed learning.Diseases of the Nervous System29(8), 533–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pond, F. L. (1938). Influence of the study of Latin on word knowledge.School Review 46611–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Portnoy, A. L., & Glasser, M. (1974). A four-year experience with a programmed text in clinical pathology.Journal of Medical Education49(5), 457–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressey, S. L., Robinson, F. P., & Horrocks, J. E. (1959).Psychology in education.New York: Harper&Brothers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M. (1991). Comparing Hall (1988) with related research on elaborative mnemonics.Journal of Educational Psychology 83165–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quirk, M. E. (1994).How to learn and teach in medical school: A learner-centered approach.Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsden, P. (1988). Studying learning: Improving teaching. In P. Ramsden (Ed.)Improving learning: New perspectives(pp. 13–31). London, UK: Kogan Page.

    Google Scholar 

  • Randels, P. M., Kilpatrick, D. G., McCurdy, L., & Saunders, P. J. (1976). Comparison of the psychiatry learning system and traditional teaching of psychiatry.Journal of Medical Education51(9), 751–757.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reder, L. M., & Anderson, J. R. (1980). A comparison of texts and their summaries: Memorial consequences.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19121–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reder, L. M., & Anderson, J. R. (1982). Effects of spacing and embellishment on memory for the main points of a text.Memory & Cognition 1097–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reeves, L. M., & Weisberg, R. W. (1994). The role of content and abstract information in analogical transfer.Psychological Bulletin 115381–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regan-Smith, M. G., Obenshain, S. S., Woodwarth, C., Richards, B., Zeitz, H. J., & Small, P. A. Jr. (1994). Rote learning in medical school.Journal of the American Medical Association 2721380–1381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A., Mandl, H., & Gruber, H. (1996). Inert knowledge: Analyses and remedies.Educational Psychologist 31115–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, B. V., Cleary, E. G., & Roberts, J. V. (1997). Graded check lists to assist undergraduate students in self-directed learning and assessment in general and systematic anatomical pathology. Pathology 29(4)370–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, R. H. (1963). Student reactions to programed learning.Phi Delta Kappan 44278–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumelhart, D. E., & Norman, D. A. (1978). Accretion, tuning and restructuring: Three modes of learning. In R. Klatzky & J. W. Cotton (Eds)Semantic factors in cognition(pp. 37–53). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: Rethinking mechanisms of a neglected phenomenon.Educational Psychologist 24113–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G. (1983). Problem-based learning: Rationale and description.Medical Education 1711–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G. (1993). Foundations of problem-based learning: Some explanatory notes.Medical Education27, 422–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schön, D. (1983).Educating the reflective practitioner.New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, P. L. (1980). A controlled trial of teaching clinical biochemistry by the Keller Plan.Journal of Medical Education 551013–1020.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shipman, J. J. (1978).Mnemonics and tactics in surgery and medicine.London, UK: Lloyd-Luke (Medical Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuell, T. J. (1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning.Review of Educational Research56(4), 411–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, L. S. (1970). Cognitive learning and the educational process. Journal of Medical Education 45(11)90–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singley, M. K., & Anderson, J. R. (1989).The transfer of cognitive skill.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1948).Walden Two.New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching.Harvard Educational Review 248697.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1959).Cumulative record.New York: Appleton Century Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, B. F. (1984). The shame of American education.American Psychologist 39947–954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slock, J. A., Snyder, I. S., & Sharp, W. L. (1980). Evaluation of the effectiveness of an advance organizer in a medical microbiology course. Journal of Medical Education 55(10)878–880.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. S., & Irby, D. M. (1997). The roles of experience and reflection in ambulatory care education.Academic Medicine72, 32–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. (1993). Reading and writing in the learning of medicine. In C. Coles & H. A. Holm (Eds)Learning in medicine(pp. 145–158). Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Coulson, R. L., & Anderson, D. K. (1989). Multiple analogies for complex concepts: Antidotes for analogy-induced misconception in advanced knowledge acquisition. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.)Similarity and analogical reasoning(pp. 498–531). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, B. S., & Bransford, J. D. (1979). Constraints on effective elaboration: Effects of precision and subject generation.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior18(6), 769–777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, B. S., Littlefield, J., Bransford, J. D., & Persampieri, M. (1984). Elaboration and knowledge acquisition.Memory & Cognition 12522–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. (1983). How children learn - The quest for a theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.)Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. History theory and methods (4’“ed., pp. 213–236). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thagard, P. (1999).How scientists explain disease.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Thorndike, E. L. (1911).Animal intelligence.New York: Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Thyne, J. M. (1963).The psychology of learning and techniques of teaching.London, UK: University of London Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troutt-Ervin, E. D. (1990). Application of keyword mnemonics to learning terminology in the college classroom.Journal of Experimental Education59(1), 31–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Rossum, H. J. M., Bender, W., & Meinders, A. E. (1991). De invloed van biografische details in casuĂŻstische mededelingen op het diagnostisch oordeel (The influence of biographical details in medical case descriptions on diagnostic judgments).Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Geneeskunde135(18), 802–805.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Rossum, H. J. M., Briet, E., Bender, W., & Meinders, A. E. (1990). The transfer effect of one single patient demonstration on diagnostic judgment of medical students: Both better and worse. In: W. Bender, R. J. Hiemstra, A. J. J. Scherpbier, & R. P. Zwierstra (Eds.)Teaching and assessing clinical competence(pp. 435–440). Groningen, The Netherlands: BoekWerk Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. (1987). Theories of knowledge restructuring in development. Review of Educational Research 57, 51–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vosniadou, S., & Schommer, M. (1988). Explanatory analogies can help children acquire information from expository text.Journal of Educational Psychology 80524–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voss, J. F. (1978). Cognition and instruction: Toward a cognitive theory of learning. In A. M. Lesgold, J. W. Pellegrino, S. D. Fokkema, & R. Glaser, (Eds)Cognitive psychology and instruction(pp. 13–26). New York: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1995). Effects of keywords on long-term retention: Help or hindrance?Journal of Educational Psychology 87468–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, A. Y., Thomas, M. H., & Ouellette, J. A. (1992). Keyword mnemonic and retention of second-language vocabulary words.Journal of Educational Psychology 84520–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weisman, R. A., & Shapiro, D. M. (1973). Personalized System of Instruction (Keller method) for medical school biochemistry.Journal of Medical Education 48934–938.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, A. N. (1929).The aims of education and other essays.New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilding, J., Rashid, W., Gilmore, D., & Valentine, E. (1986). A comparison of two mnemonic methods in learning medical information.Human Learning: Journal of Practical Research and Applications5(4), 211–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wittrock, M. C. (1989). Generative processes of comprehension.Educational Psychologist 24345–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wittrock, M. C., & Twelker, P. A. (1964). Verbal cues and variety of classes of problems in transfer of training.Psychological Reports 14827–830.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, D. E., Desberg, P., & Marsh, G. (1985). Analogy strategies for improving word recognition in competent and learning-disabled readers.Reading Teacher 38412–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodrow, H. (1927). The effect of type of training upon transference.Journal of Educational Psychology 18159–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodworth, R. S., & Thorndike, E. L. (1901). The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions. (I).Psychological Review 8(3)247–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woolfolk, A. E. (1998).Educational psychology (7 thed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, E. D. (1993). Understanding the generative capacity of analogies as a tool for explanation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 30(10)1259–1272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, B. (1993). Teaching anatomical pathology in an integrated self-directed learning programme: The Newcastle experience. Pathology 25(4)423–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zamir, M. (1996). Secrets of the heart.The Sciences(Sep.-Oct.), 26–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zook, K. B. (1991). Effects of analogical processes on learning and misrepresentation.Educational Psychology Review3(1), 41–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. UMC Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Eugène J. F. M. Custers

  2. Maastricht University, The Netherlands

    Henny P. A. Boshuizen

Authors
  1. Eugène J. F. M. Custers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Henny P. A. Boshuizen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. McMaster University, Canada

    Geoff R. Norman

  2. University of Maastricht, The Netherlands

    Cees P. M. van der Vleuten  & Diana H. J. M. Dolmans  & 

  3. University of Sheffield, UK

    David I. Newble

  4. Dalhousie University, Canada

    Karen V. Mann

  5. University of Toronto, Canada

    Arthur Rothman

  6. CurryCorp, Canada

    Lynn Curry

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Custers, E.J.F.M., Boshuizen, H.P.A. (2002). The Psychology of Learning. In: Norman, G.R., et al. International Handbook of Research in Medical Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education, vol 7. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0462-6_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0462-6_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-3904-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-010-0462-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation