Abstract
Up to the seventeenth century, the unaided eye was the only receiver that humanity could use to observe the Universe. Evolution was able to adapt this “instrument” to be sensitive to the light of the star we happen to be orbiting, the Sun. The invention of the telescope amplified the sensitivity of the eye and its angular resolution, letting humanity discover, less than a century ago, that other galaxies exist, far beyond the Milky way, and that these galaxies are moving apart: the Universe expands. However, all we could discover using the eye and its extension, the optical telescope, regarded a tiny, very tiny, part of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. As soon as technology enabled us to open new windows, we discovered other phenomena, other objects, and could push our knowledge farther out in space and time.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aloy, M.A., Ibanez, J.M., Martì, J.M., Gomez, J.-L. and Muller, E.(1999). High-resolution three-dimensional simulations of relativisticbjets. Astrophysical Journal, 523, L125–L128.
Begelman, M.C., Blandford, R.D. and Rees, M.J. (1984). Theory of extragalactic radio sources. Reviews of Modern Physics, 56, 255–351.
Blandford, R.D. and Payne, D.G. (1982). Hydromagnetic flows from accretion discs and the production of radio jets. MonthlyNotices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 199, 883–903.
Blandford, R.D. and Königl, A. (1979). Relativistic jets as compact radio sources. Astrophysical Journal, 232, 34–48.
Blandford, R.D. and Levinson, A. (1995). Pair cascades in extragalacticjets. 1: Gamma rays. Astrophysical Journal, 441, 79–95.
Blandford, R.D. and Rees, M.J. (1974). A ‘twin-exhaust’ model for double radio sources. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 169,395–415.
Blandford, R.D. and Rees, M.J. (1978). Some comments on radiation mechanisms in Lacertids. In A.M. Wolfe (ed), Pittsburgh Conference of BL Lac objects, Pittsburgh University Press, PA, pp. 328–341.
Blandford, R.D. and Znajek, R.L. (1977). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 176, 465–481.
Blumenthal, G.R. and Gould, R.J. (1970). Bremsstrahlung, synchrotron radiation, and Compton scattering of high-energy electrons traversing dilute gases. Reviews of Modern Physics, 42, 237.
Bodo, G. (1997). Non-linear instabilities in supersonic jets. In S. Massaglia and G. Bodo (eds), Astrophysical Jets: Open Problems, Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, pp.161–170.
Catanese, M. and Weekes, T.C. (1999). Very high energy gamma-ray astronomy. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific,1193–1222.
Celotti, A. and Fabian, A.C. (1993). The kinetic power and luminosity of parsecscale radio jets -An argument for heavy jets. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 264, 228–236.
Celotti, A. and Blandford, R.D. (2001). On the formation of jets. In L. Kaper, E.P.J. van den Heuvel, P.A. Woudt (eds), Black Holes in Binaries and Galactic Nuclei, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p. 206.
Celotti, A. and Ghisellini, G. (2002). In preparation.
Dermer, C.D. and Schlickeiser, R. (1993). Model for the high-energy emission from blazars. Astrophysical Journal, 416, 458–484.
Dondi, L. and Ghisellini, G. (1995). Gamma-ray-loud blazars and beaming. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 273,583–595.
Fossati, G., Maraschi, L., Celotti, A., Comastri, A. and Ghisellini, G.(1998). A unifying view of the spectral energy distributions of blazars.Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 299, 433–448.
Fossati, G., Celotti, A., Ghisellini, G. and Maraschi, L. (1997). Unifying models for X-ray-selected and radio-selected BL Lac objects. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,289, 136–150.
Gaidos, J.A. et al. (1996). Very rapid and energetic bursts of TeVphotons from the active galaxy Markarian 421. Nature, 383,319–388.
Ghisellini, G., Celotti, A., Fossati, G., Maraschi, L. and Maraschi, L. (1998). A theoretical unifying scheme for gamma-ray bright blazars. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,301, 451–468.
Ghisellini, G. and Madau, P. (1996). On the origin of the gamma-rayemission in blazars. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 280,67–76.
Ghisellini, G., Maraschi, L. and Treves, A. (1985). Inhomogeneous synchrotron-self-Compton models and the problem of relativistic beaming of BL Lac objects. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 146, 204–212.
Ghisellini, G., Padovani, P., Celotti, A. and Maraschi, L. (1993).Relativistic bulk motion in active galactic nuclei. Astrophysical Journal, 407,65–82.
Giacconi, R., Gursky, H., Paolini, F. and Rossi, B. (1962). Evidence for X-rays from sources outside the Solar System. Physical Review Letters, 9, 439–443.
Giommi, P. and Padovani, P. (1994). BL-lacertae reunification.Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 268,L51–L54.
Ginzburg, V.L. and Syrovatskii, S.I. (1965). Cosmicmagnetobrems-strahlung (synchrotron radiation). Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 3, 297.
Haardt, F. and Maraschi, L. (1991). A two-phase model for the X-rayemission from Seyfert galaxies. Astrophysical Journal, 380,L51–L54.
Hoyle, F.S.R., Burbidge, G.R. and Sargent, W.L.W. (1966). On the nature of the quasi-stellar sources. Nature, 209, 751–753.
Jauncey, D.L., Kedziora-Chudczer, L.L., Macquart, J.P., Lovell, J.E.J., Perley, R.A., Nicolson, G.D., Rayner, D.P., Reynolds, J.E., Tzioumis, A.K., Wieringa, M.H., Bignall, H.E. (2000). Galaxies and their Constituents at the Highest Angular Resolution. International Astronomical Union. Symposium 205, Manchester, England, August 2000.
Jones, T.W., O’Dell, S.L. and Stein, W.A. (1974a). Physics of compact nonthermal sources. Theory of radiation processes. Astrophysical Journal, 188, 353–368.
Jones, T.W., O’Dell, S.L. and Stein, W.A. (1974b). Physics of compact nonthermal sources. H. Determination of physical parameters. Astrophysical Journal, 192, 261–278.
Kedziora-Chudczer, L., Jauncey, D.L., Wieringa, M.H., Walker, M.A., Nicolson, G.D., Reynolds, J.E. and Tzioumis, A.K. (1997). PKS 0405–385: The smallest radio quasar? Astrophysical Journal,490, L9–L12.
Königl, A. (1981). Relativistic jets as X-ray and gamma-ray sources. Astrophysical Journal, 243, 700–709.
Lynden-Bell, D. (1969). Galactic nuclei as collapsed old quasars.Nature, 223, 690.
Mannheim, K. (1993). The proton blazar. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 269, 67–76.
Maraschi, L., Celotti, A., Fossati, G., Ghisellini, G., Tagliaferri, G., Pian, E., Treves, A., Raiteri, C., Villata, M., Bassani, L., Cappi, M., Chiappetti, L., Comastri, A., Frontera, F., Giarrusso, S., Grandi, P., Molendi, S.,Palumbo, G., Perola, C., Salvati, M., Tanzi, E.G. and Urry, C.M. (1998). Bepposax observations of 3c 279. In L. Scarsi, H. Bradt, P. Giommi and F. Fiore (eds), The Active X-ray Sky: Results from BeppoSAX and RXTE, Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 453 [reprinted from Nuclear Physics B, 69(1–3)].
Maraschi, L., Ghisellini, G. and Celotti, A. (1992). A jet model for the gamma-ray emitting blazar 3C 279. Astrophysical Journal, 397, L5–L9.
Maraschi, L., Ghisellini, G., Tanzi, E.G. and Treves, A. (1986). Spectral properties of blazars. II. An X-ray observed sample. Astrophysical Journal, 310, 325–333.
Maraschi, L. and Rovetti, F. (1994). A unified relativistic beaming model for BL Lacertae objects and flat spectrum radio quasars. Astrophysical Journal, 436, 79–88.
Marscher, A.P. (1980). Relativistic jets and the continuum emission in QSOs. Astrophysical Journal, 235, 386–391.
Miller, J.S. and Hawley, S.A. (1977). The spectrum and redshift of BL Lacertae. Astrophysical Journal, 212, L47.
Narayan, R. and Yi, I. (1994). Advection-dominated accretion: A self-similar solution. Astrophysical Journal, 428, L13–L16.
O’Dell, S.L. (1981). Radiation force on a relativistic plasma and the Eddington limit. Astrophysical Journal, 243, L147–L149.
Oke, J.B. and Gunn, J.E. (1974). The distance of BL Lacertae.Astrophysical Journal, 189, L5.
Padovani, P., Ghisellini, G., Fabian, A.C. and Celotti, A. (1993). Radio-loud AGN and the extragalactic gamma-ray background. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 260, L21–L24.
Padovani, P. and Giommi, P. (1995). The connection between X-ray-and radio-selected BL Lacertae objects. Astrophysical Journal, 444, 567–581.
Perlman, E.S., Stocke, J.T., Schachter, J.F., Elvis, M., Ellingson, E.,Urry,C.M., Potter, M., Impey, C.D. and Kolchinsky, P. (1996). The Einstein Slew Survey sample of BL Lacertae objects. Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 104, 251.
Phinney S. (1987). How fast can a blob go? In J.A. Zensus and T.J. Pearson (eds), Superluminal Radio Sources, Cambridge University Press, pp. 301–305.
Pian, E., Vacanti, G., Tagliaferri, G., Ghisellini, G., Maraschi, L., Treves, A.,Urry, M., Fiore, F., Giommi, P., Palazzi, E., Chiappetti, L. and Sambruna,R.M. (1998). BeppoSAX observations of unprecedented synchrotron activity in the BL Lacertae object Markarian 501. Astrophysical Journal,492, L17–L20.
Rawlings, S.G. and Saunders, R.D.E. (1991). Evidence for a common central-engine mechanism in all extragalactic radio sources. Nature,349,138–140.
Rees, M.J. (1966). Appearance of relativistically expanding radio sources.Nature, 211, 468–470.
Rees, M.J. (1967). Studies in radio source structure-III. Inverse Compton radiation from radio sources. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 137, 429–444.
Rees, M.J. (1978). The M87 jet -Internal shocks in a plasma beam.Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 184, 61P–65P.
Rees, M.J., Phinney, E.S., Begelman, M.C. and Blandford, R.D. (1982).Ion-supported tori and the origin of radio jets. Nature, 295, 17–21.
Reynolds, S.P. (1982). Theoretical studies of compact radio sources. I-Synchrotron radiation from relativistic flows. Astrophysical Journal,256, 13–37.
Salpeter, E.E. (1964). Accretion of interstellar matter by massive objects.Astrophysical Journal, 140, 796–800.
Schneider, D.P., van Gorkom, J.H., Schmidt, M. and Gunn, J.E. (1992).Radio properties of optically selected high-redshift quasars. I -VLA observations of 22 quasars at 6 CM. Astronomical Journal, 103,1451–1456.
Shakura, N.I. and Sunyaev, R.A. (1973). Black holes in binary systems. Observational appearance. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24,337–355.
Sikora, M., Begelman, M.C. and Rees, M.J. (1994). Comptonization of diffuse ambient radiation by a relativistic jet: The source of gamma rays from blazars? Astrophysical Journal, 421, 153–162.
Stecker, F.W. and De Jager, O.C. (1993). New upper limits on intergalactic infrared radiation from high-energy astrophysics. Astrophysical Journal,415, L7l.
Stecker, F.W., Salamon, M.H. and Malkan, M.A. (1993). The high-energy diffuse cosmic gamma-ray background radiation from blazars. Astrophysical Journal, 410,L71–L74.
Stern, D., Spinrad, H., Eisenhardt, P., Bunker, A.J., Dawson, S., Stanford, S.A. and Elston, E. (2000). Discovery of a color-selected quasar at Z =5.50. Astrophysical Journal, 533, L75–L78.
Stickel, M., Fried, J.W., Kühr, H., Padovani, P. and Urry, C.M. (1991). The complete sample of 1 Jansky BL Lacertae objects. I -Summary properties. Astrophysical Journal, 374, 431–439.
Svensson, R. (1987). Non-thermal pair production in compact X-ray sources -First-order Compton cascades is soft radiation fields. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 227, 403–451.
Ulrich, M.-H., Maraschi, L. and Urry, C.M. (1997). Variability of active galactic nuclei. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 35, 445–502.
Urry, C.M. and Padovani, P. (1995). Unified schemes for radio-loud active galactic nuclei. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 107, 803–845.
Urry, C.M. and Shafer, R.A. (1984). Luminosity enhancement in relativistic jets and altered luminosity functions for beamed objects. Astrophysical Journal, 280, 569–573.
Vermeulen, R.C. and Cohen, M.H. (1994). Superluminal motion statistics and cosmology. Astrophysical Journal, 430, 467–494.
Wagner, S.J. and Witzel, A. (1994). Intraday variability in quasars and BL Lac objects. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 33, 163–198.
Wardle, J.F.C. (1977). Upper limits on the Faraday rotation in variable radio sources. Nature, 269, 563–566.
Wardle, J.F.C., Homan, D.C., Ojha, R. and Roberts, D.H. (1998). Electron-positron jets associated with the quasar 3C 279. Nature, 395, 457–461.
Wehrle, A.E., Pian, E., Urry, C.M., Maraschi, L., McHardy, I.M., Lawson, A.J., Ghisellini, G., Hartman, R.C., Madejski, G.M., Makino, F., Marscher, A.P., Wagner, S.J., Webb, J.R., Aldering, G.S., Aller, M.F., Aller, H.D., Backman, D.E., Balonek, T.J., Boltwood, P., Bonnell, J., Caplinger, J., Celotti, A., Collmar, W., Dalton, J., Drucker, A., Falomo, R., Fichtel, C.E., Freudling, W., Gear, W.K., Gonzalez-Perez, N., Hall, P., Inoue, H., Johnson, W.N., Kazanas, D., Kidger, M.R., Kii, T., Kollgaard, R.I., Kondo, Y., Kurfess, J., Lin, Y.C., McCollum, B., McNaron-Brown, K., Nagase, F., Nair, A.D., Penton, S., Pesce, J.E., Pohl, M., Raiteri, C.M., Renda, M., Robson, E.I., Sambruna, R.M., Schirmer, A.F., Shrader, C., Sikora, M., Sillanpaeae, A., Smith, P.S., Stevens, J.A., Stocke, J., Takalo, L.O., Teraesranta, H., Thompson, D.J., Thompson, R., Tornikoski, M., Tosti, G., Treves, A., Turcotte, P., Unwin, S.C., Valtaoja, E., Villata, M., Xu, W., Yamashita, A. and Zook, A. (1998). Multiwavelength observations of a draatic high-energy flare in the blazar 3C 279. Astrophysical Journal,497, 178–187.
Whitney, A.R., Shapiro, I.I., Robertson, D.S., Knight, C.A., Clark, T.A., Goldstein, R.M., Marandino, G.E. and Vandenberg, N.R. (1971). Quasars revisited: Rapid time variations observed via very-long-baseline interferometry. Science, 173, 225.
Wolter, A., Gioia, I.M., Maccacaro, T., Morris, S.L. and Stocke, J.T. (1991). The number count distribution for X-ray-selected BL Lacertae objects and constraints on the luminosity function. Astrophysical Journal, 369, 314–319.
Zeldovich, Ya.B. (1964). Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 157, 67.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ghisellini, G. (2001). Blazars. In: Bleeker, J.A.M., Geiss, J., Huber, M.C.E. (eds) The Century of Space Science. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0320-9_24
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0320-9_24
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-7196-0
Online ISBN: 978-94-010-0320-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive