Synopsis
Megaherbivores, i.e. terrestrial large mammals exceeding 1 000 kg, represent one extreme in the r/K selection dichotomy. Features of their faunal contribution, life-history patterns and ecology are compared with those of smaller mammalian herbivores in African savanna biomes. Though limited in species, megaherbivores comprise nearly half of the total biomass of large herbivores. They are supreme generalists in their tolerant feeding habits and wide geographic distribution. Their mean birth intervals, time to sexual maturity and potential longevity are longer than predicted from allometric extrapolations, but exhibit much flexibility. Adult megaherbivores are invulnerable to predation so that populations tend towards saturation densities at which nutrition limits further increase. Population biomass is relatively unaffected by drought periods, while dispersal adjusts populations to changing resource distribution. Megaherbivores exert a major impact on the structure and composition of vegetation. The critical transition at a body mass of 1 000 kg is the decoupling of population processes from the annual seasonal cycle. Megaherbivore species are resilient to climatic and habitat fluctuations, and their disappearance from northern Eurasia, the Americas and Australia at the end of the Pleistocene is ascribed to human predation. Elimination of megaherbivores from these regions had cascading consequences for biotic communities.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Anderson, E. 1984. Who’s who in the Pleistocene: a mammalian bestiary, pp. 40–89. In: P.S. Martin & R.G. Klein (ed.) Quaternary Extinctions, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Allen, J.A. 1876. Geographical variation among North American mammals. Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. 2: 309.
Barnes, R.F.W. & I. Douglas-Hamilton. 1982. The numbers and distribution patterns of large mammals in the Ruaha-Rungwa area of Southern Tanzania. J. Appl. Ecol. 19: 411–425.
Bell, R.H.V. 1981. An outline of a management plan for Kasungu National Park, Malawi. pp. 69–89. In: PA. Jewell, S. Holt & D. Hart (ed.). Problems in Management of Locally Abundant Wild Mammals, Academic Press, New York.
Berry, H.H. 1980. Behavioural and eco-physiological studies on blue wildebeest at the Etosha National Park. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town. 611 pp.
Bourliere, F. 1965. Densities and biomasses of some ungulate populations in Eastern Congo and Rwanda, with notes on population structure and lion-ungulate ratios. Zool. Afr. 1: 199–207.
Calder, W.A.. III. 1984. Size, function and life history. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 431 pp.
Caughley, G. & C.J. Krebs. 1983. Are big mammals simply small mammals writ large? Oecologia 59: 7–17.
Clemens, E.T. & G.M. Maloiy. 1982. The digestive physiology of three East African herbivores: the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus. J. Zool. 198: 141–156.
Corfield, T.F. 1973. Elephant mortality in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 11: 339–368.
Cumming, D.H.M. 1975. A field study of the ecology and behaviour of warthog. Museum Memoir No. 7, Trustees of the National Museums and Monuments of Rhodesia, Salisbury. 179 pp.
Cumming, D.H.M. 1982. The influence of large herbivores on savanna structure in Africa. pp. 217–245. In: B.J. Huntley & B.H. Walker (ed.). The Ecology of Tropical Savannas, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Demment, M.W. & P.J. Van Soest. 1985. A nutritional explanation for body-size patterns of ruminant and nonruminant herbivores. Amer. Nat. 125: 641–672.
Dittrich, L. 1987. Age of sexual maturity in the hippopotamus. Int. Zoo Yrb. 16: 171–173.
Douglas-Hamilton, I. 1972. On the ecology and behaviour of the African elephant. Ph.D. Thesis, Oxford University, Oxford.
Duncan, P. 1975. Topi and their food supply. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi. 283 pp.
Eltringham, S.K. & N.A. Din. 1977. Estimates of the population size of some ungulate species in the Rwenzori National Park, Uganda. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 15: 305–316.
Field, C.R. 1970. A study of the feeding habits of hippopotamus in the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, with management implications. Zool. Afr. 5: 71–86.
Field, C.R. & R.M. Laws. 1970. The distribution of the larger herbivores in the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. J. Appl. Ecol. 7: 273–294.
Foose, T.J. 1982. Trophic strategies of ruminant vs nonruminant ungulates. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, Chicago. 337 pp.
Foster, J.B. & M.J. Coe. 1968. The biomass of game animals in Nairobi National Park, 1960–1966. J. Zool. 155: 413–428.
Foster, J.B. & A.I. Dagg. 1972. Notes on the biology of the giraffe. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 10: 1–16.
Georgiadis, N. 1985. Growth patterns, sexual dimorphism and reproduction in African ruminants. Afr. J. Ecol. 23: 75–88.
Goddard, J. 1967. Home range behaviour and recruitment rates of two black rhinoceros populations. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 5: 133–150.
Green, A.A. 1979. Density estimate of the larger mammals of Arli National Park, Upper Volta. Mammalia 43: 59–70.
Gruhn, R. & A.L. Bryan. 1984. The record of Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions at Taimataima, northern Venezuela, pp. 128–137. In: P.S. Martin & R.G. Klein (ed.) Quaternary Extinctions, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Guthrie, R.D. 1984. Mosaics, allelochemics and nutrients. An ecological theory of late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, pp. 259–298. In: P.S. Martin & R.G. Klein (ed.) Quaternary Extinctions, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Guy, P.R. 1981. Changes in the biomass and productivity of woodlands in the Sengwa Research Area, Zimbabwe. J. Appl. Ecol. 18: 507–519.
Hall-Martin, A.J. 1984. Conservation and management of elephants in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, pp. 104–118. In: D.H.M. Cumming & P. Jackson (ed.) The Status and Conservation of Africa’s Elephants and Rhinos, IUCN, Gland.
Hanks, J. 1972. Reproduction of elephant in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. J. Reprod. Fert. 30: 13–26 Hai]itchins, P.M. 1971. Preliminary findings in a radiotelemetric study on the black rhinoceros in Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Zululand. pp. 79–100. Symposium on Biotelemetry, Pretoria, 1971. CSIR, Pretoria.
Hitchins, P.M. & J.L. Anderson. 1983. Reproductive characteristics and management of the black rhinoceros in the Hluhluwe/Corridor/Umfolozi Game Reserve Complex. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 13: 78–85.
Hooijer, D.A. 1978. Rhinocerotidae. pp. 371–378. In: V.J. Maglio & H.B.S. Cooke (ed.) Evolution of African Mammals, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Jachmann, H. & R.H.V. Bell. 1985. Utilization by elephants of the Brachystegia woodlands of the Kasungu National Park, Malawi. Afr. J. Ecol. 23: 245–258.
Jarman, P.J. 1974. The social organization of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour 48: 215–267.
Kingdon, J. 1979. East African mammals. An atlas of evolution in Africa. Vol. III B (Large mammals). Academic Press, London. 435 pp.
Klein, R.G. 1984. Mammalian extinctions and Stone Age people in Africa, pp. 533–573. In: P.S. Martin & R.G. Klein (ed.) Quaternary Extinctions, Academic Press, New York.
Kurtén, B. 1968. Pleistocene mammals of Europe. Aldine, Chicago. 317 pp.
Kurtén, B. & E. Anderson. 1980. Pleistocene mammals of North America. Columbia University Press, New York. 443 pp.
Lang, E.M. 1967. Einige biologische Daten von Panzernashorn. Rev. Suisse Zool. 74: 603–607.
Langman, VA. 1973. Radio-tracking giraffe for ecological studies. J. South. Afr. Wildl. Manage. Ass. 3: 75–78.
Langman, VA. 1977. Cow-calf relationships in giraffe. Z. Tierpsychol. 43: 264–286.
Laurie, W.A. 1978. The ecology and behaviour of the greater one-horned rhinoceros. Ph.D. Thesis, Cambridge University, Cambridge. 450 pp.
Laws, R.M. 1968. Interactions between elephant and hippopotamus populations and their environments. E. Afr. Agric. For. J. 33: 140–147.
Laws, R.M. 1969. The Tsavo research project. J. Reprod. Fert., Suppl. 6: 495–531.
Laws, R.M., I.S.C. Parker & R.C.B. Johnstone. 1975. Elephants and their habitats. The ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro, Uganda. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 376 pp.
Lee, P.C. 1987.Allomothering among African elephants. Anim. Behav. 35: 278–291.
Lee, R.C. & C.J. Moss. 1986. Early maternal investment in male and female elephant calves. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 18: 353–361.
Leuthold, B.M. & W. Leuthold. 1978. Ecology of giraffe in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 16: 1–20.
Leuthold, W. 1977. Spatial organization and strategy of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Z. Säugetierk. 42: 358–379.
Leuthold, W. & B.M. Leuthold. 1976. Density and biomass of ungulates in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 14: 49–58.
Lindstedt, S.L. & W.A. Calder III. 1981. Body size, physiological time and longevity of homeothermic animals. Quart. Rev. Biol. 56: 1–16.
Lock, J.M. 1972. The effect of hippopotamus grazing in grasslands. J. Ecol. 60: 445–467.
Lorius, C, J. Jouzel, C. Ritz, L. Merlivat, N.I. Barkov, Y.S. Korotkevich & V.M. Kotlyakov. 1985. A 150,000-year climatic record from Antarctic ice. Nature (Lond.) 316: 591–596.
Loutit, B.D., G.N. Louw & M.K. Seely. 1987. Preliminary observations of food preferences and chemical composition of the diet of the desert-dwelling black rhinoceros. Madoqua 15: 35–54.
Macdonald, D. (ed.) 1984. The encyclopaedia of mammals. Vol. 2. George Allen & Unwin, London. 895 pp.
Maglio, V.J. 1978. Patterns of faunal evolution, pp. 603–619. In: V.J. Maglio & H.B.S. Cooke (ed.) Evolution of African Mammals. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Maglio, V.J. & H.B.S. Cooke, (ed.) 1978. Evolution of African mammals. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 641 pp.
Marshall, P.J. & J.A. Sayer. 1976. Population ecology and response to cropping of a hippopotamus population in eastern Zambia. J. Appl. Ecol. 13: 391–404.
Martin, P.S. 1984. Prehistoric overkill: the global model, pp. 354–403. In: PS. Martin & R.G. Klein (ed.) Quaternary Extinctions, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Martin, P.S. & J.E. Guilday. 1967. A bestiary for Pleistocene biologists, pp. 1–61. In: P.S. Martin & H.E. Wright (ed.) Pleistocene Extinctions: The Search for a Cause, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Melton, D.A. 1978. Undercounting bias of helicopter censuses in Umfolozi Game Reserve. Lammergeyer (Natal) 26: 1–6.
Mueller-Dombois, D. 1972. Crown distortion and elephant distribution in the woody vegetation of Ruhunu National Park, Ceylon. Ecology 53: 208–226.
Mukinya, J.G. 1973. Density, distribution, population structure and social organization of the black rhinoceros in Masai Mara Game Reserve. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 11: 385–400.
Murray, P. 1984. Extinctions downunder: a bestiary of extinct Australian late Pleistocene monotremes and marsupials, pp. 600–628. In: P.S. Martin & R.G. Klein (ed.) Quaternary Extinctions, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Naylor, J.N., G.J. Caughley, N.O. Abel & O.N. Liberg. 1973. Luangwa Valley conservation and development project, Zambia. Game management and habitat manipulation. F.A.O. report, Rome.
O’Connor, T.G. & B.M. Campbell. 1986. Hippopotamus habitat relationships on the Lundi River, Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Afr. J. Ecol. 24: 7–26.
Olivier, R.C.D. & W.A. Laurie. 1974. Habitat utilisation by hippopotamus in the Mara River. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 12: 249–272.
Owen-Smith, G. 1986. The Kaokoveld, South West Africa/Namibia’s threatened wilderness. African Wildlife 40: 104–113.
Owen-Smith, N. 1973. The behavioural ecology of the white rhinoceros. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison. 786 pp.
Owen-Smith, N. 1975. The social ethology of the white rhinoceros. Z. Tierpsychol. 38: 337–384.
Owen-Smith, N. 1987. Pleistocene extinctions. The pivotal role of megaherbivores. Paleobiology 13: 351–362.
Owen-Smith, N. 1988. Megaherbivores. The influence of very large body size on ecology. Cambridge Studies in Ecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 363 pp.
Pellow, R.A. 1983. The giraffe and its food resource in the Serengeti. II. Response of the population to changes in the food supply. Afr. J. Ecol. 21: 269–283.
Peters, R.H. 1983. The ecological implications of body size. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 329 pp.
Pienaar, U. de V. 1982. The Kruger Park Saga (1898–1981). Mimeographed paper presented at the workshop on Management of Large Mammals in African Conservation Areas, Kruger National Park, September 1982. 38 pp.
Pratt, D.M. & V.H. Anderson. 1979. Giraffe cow-calf relationships and social development of the calf in the Serengeti. Z. Tierpsychol. 51: 233–251.
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1984. Scaling. Why is animal size so important? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 241 pp.
Shackleton, N.J., M.A. Hall, J. Line & Cang Shuxi. 1983. Carbon isotope data in core VI9-30 confirm reduced carbon dioxide concentration in the ice age atmosphere. Nature (Lond.) 306: 319–322.
Simpson, G.L. 1980. Splendid isolation. Yale University Press, New Haven. 266 pp.
Sinclair, A.R.E. & M. Norton-Griffiths. 1979. Serengeti. Dynamics of an ecosystem. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 389 pp.
Smuts, G.L. 1975. Reproduction and population characteristics of elephants in the Kruger National Park. J. South. Afr. Wildl. Manage. Assoc. 5: 1–10.
Spinage, C.A. 1970. Population dynamics of the Uganda defassa waterbuck in the Queen Elizabeth Park, Uganda. J. Anim. Ecol. 39: 51–78.
Spinage, C.A., F. Guinness, S.K. Eltringham & M.H. Woodford. 1972. Estimation of large mammal numbers in the Akagera National Park and Mutara Hunting Area, Rwanda. Terre et Vie 4: 561–570.
Thompson, P.J. 1975. The role of elephants, fire and other agents in the decline of a Brachystegia boehmii woodland. J. South. Afr. Wildl. Manage. Assoc. 5: 11–18.
Thornton, D.D. 1971. The effect of complete removal of hippopotamus on grassland in the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 9: 47–55.
Van Lavieren, L.P. & J.D. Esser. 1980. Numbers, distribution and habitat preference of large mammals in Bouba Njida National Park, Cameroon. Afr. J. Ecol 18: 141–153.
Vereshchagin, N.K. & G.T. Baryshnikov. 1984. Quaternary mammalian extinctions in northern Eurasia, pp. 483–516. In: P.S. Martin & R.G. Klein (ed.) Quaternary Extinctions, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Verheyen, R. 1954. Monographic ethologique de la hippopotame. Inst, des Pares Nat. du Congo Beige, Bruxelles. 91 pp.
Walker, B.H., R.H. Emslie, N. Owen-Smith & R.J. Scholes. 1987. To cull or not to cull: lessons from a southern African drought. J. Appl. Ecol. 24: 381–401.
Western, D. 1975. Water availability and its influence on the structure and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 13: 265–286.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1989 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Owen-Smith, N. (1989). The megaherbivore syndrome: alternative life style or different time frame?. In: Bruton, M.N. (eds) Alternative Life-History Styles of Animals. Perspectives in vertebrate science, vol 6. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2605-9_22
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2605-9_22
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-7675-3
Online ISBN: 978-94-009-2605-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive