Abstract
It was in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Leiden that helium was first liquefied in 1908, that superconductivity was first observed in 1911, that helium was first solidified in 1926, and many properties of what eventually came to be known as superfluid helium were first discovered. Many other developments — of a less “dramatic” nature, but as important to the development of low temperature physics — took place in Leiden which, between 1908 and 1923, was the only laboratory in the world1 where liquid helium could be produced and used to make physical measurements. These achievements were the result of a long-term strategy first set many years before 1908 by the Laboratory’s Director, the person who was known among the members of the Institut Internationale du Froid as “le gentleman du zero absolu” or as “Mr. Freezer” for some Dutch cartoonists, the person appointed to the first chair of experimental physics in the Netherlands, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926).2
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Notes
E.Cohen, 1927, p. 1197.
J. D. van der Waals, 1880
J. D. van der Waals, 1888
J. D. van der Waals, 1910
J. D. van der Waals, 1912
J. de Boer 1974
M. J. Klein 1974.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1882.
J. D. van der Waals, 1888, p. 454.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1896, p. 5.
E.Cohen, 1927, p. 1203.
H. Frohlich, 1961.
K. Gavroglu, Y. Goudaroulis, 1984
P.F.Dahl, 1984, 1986.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1882.
J. D. van der Waals, 1890, p. 43.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1894, p. 4.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1896, p. 5.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1901 a, b.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1901 a, p. 3.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1904, pp. 18–19.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, C. Zakrzewski, 1904, p. 3.
W.Keesom, 1901.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, H. H. Francis Hyndman, 1901,1902
W. J. de Haas, 1911, 1912.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, W. J. de Haas, 1912, F. P. G. A. J. van Agt, 1925.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1917.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, C. A. Crommelin, 1913.
F. P. G.A.J, van Agt, 1925.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, W. Keesom, 1912.
See mainly H. Kamerlingh Onnes, H. A. Kuypers, 1924.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, C. Dorsman, G. Hoist, 1914.
J. Palacios Martinez, H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1923.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, W. Keesom, 1908.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, Cromelin, C.A., 1911.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, W. Keesom, 1912.
W. Keesom, 1912a, b, c, d and 1915a, b. W. Keesom, Miss C. van Leeuwen, 1915.
E.Mathias, 1928.
E.Cohen, 1927, p. 1203.
M.P.Curie, 1895.
P. Weiss, H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1910.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, A. Perrier, 1911 a, b.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, E. Oosterhuis, 1912, 1913a.
A. Perrier, H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1914b.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1914d.
G. Breit, H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1923.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, A. Perrier, 1910.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, A. Perrier, 191 la, b.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, A. Perrier, 1911a.
Ibid.
P.Weiss, 1907, 1910.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, E. Oosterhuis, 1913a, p. 52.
H. Kamerlingh Onnes, E. Oosterhuis, 1913b.
A. Perrier, H. Kamerlingh Onnes, 1914b.
Ibid., p. 39.
Ibid., p. 40.
Ibid., pp. 52–53.
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© 1989 Kluwer Academic Publishers
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Gavroglu, K., Goudaroulis, Y. (1989). Early research at Leiden and some of its methodological implications. In: Methodological Aspects of the Development of Low Temperature Physics 1881–1956. Science and Philosophy, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2556-4_2
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