Abstract
The ultimate goal of ecotoxicological testing is to predict ecological effects of chemicals and other stressors. Since damage should be avoided rather than corrected after it occurs, the predictive value of such tests is crucial. A modest base of evidence shows that, in some cases, extrapolations from bioassays on one species to another species are reasonably accurate and, in other cases, misleading. Extrapolations from laboratory bioassays to response in natural systems at the population level are effective if the environmental realism of the bioassay is sufficiently high. When laboratory systems are poor simulations of natural systems, gross extrapolation errors may result. The problem of extrapolating among levels of biological organization has not been given the serious attention it deserves, and currently used methodologies have been chosen for reasons other than scientific validity. As the level of biological organization increases, new properties are added (e.g., nutrient cycling, energy transfer) that are not readily apparent at the lower levels. The measured responses (or end points) will not be the same at all levels of biological organization, making the validation of predictions difficult. Evidence indicates that responses of ecologically complex laboratory systems correspond to predicted and documented patterns in stressed ecosystems. The difficulties of improving the ecological evidence used to predict adverse effects are not insurmountable since the essence of predictive capability is the determination of effects thresholds at all levels of organization. The dilemma between basing predictive schemes on either traditional or holistic methods can only be solved by facing scientific and ethical questions regarding the adequacy of evidence used to make decisions of environmental protection.
‘When very little is known about an important subject, the questions people raise are almost invariably ethical. Then as knowledge grows, they become more concerned with information and amoral, in other words more narrowly intellectual. Finally, as understanding becomes sufficiently complete, the questions turn ethical again. Environmentalism is now passing from the first to the second phase, and there is reason to hope that it will proceed directly on to the third.’
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Beyers, R. J., 1963. The metabolism of twelve aquatic laboratory microecosystems. Ecol. Monogr. 33: 281–306.
Biswas, H. & B. A. Bell, 1984. A method for establishing site-specific stream design flows for wasteload allocation. J. Wat. Pollut. Cont. Fed. 56: 1123–1130.
Bormann, F. H. & G. E. Likens, 1970. Nutrient cycles of an ecosystem. Sci. Am. 220: 92–101.
Buikema, A. L.,Jr., 1983. Inter- and intralaboratory variation in conducting static acute toxicity tests with Daphnia magna exposed to effluents and reference toxicants. American Petroleum Institute Publication 4362, Washington, D.C 32 pp.
Cairns, J., Jr., 1982. Predictive and reactive systems for ecosystem quality control. In M. B. Fiering (ed.), Scientific Basis of Water-Resource Management. Geophysics Research Board, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C: 72–84.
Cairns, J., Jr. (ed.), 1985. Multispecies Toxicity Testing. Pergamon Press, N.Y., 261 pp.
Cairns, J., Jr. (ed.), 1986. Community Toxicity Testing, STP920. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 350 pp.
Cairns, J., Jr. (ed.), 1989. Functional Testing of Aquatic Biota for Estimating Hazards of Chemicals, STP 988. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa. 242 pp.
Cairns, J., Jr. & D. S. Cherry, 1983. A site-specific field and laboratory evaluation of fish and Asiatic clam population responses to coal fired power plant discharges. Water Sci. Tech. 15: 10–37.
Cairns, J., Jr. & E. P. Smith, 1989. Developing a statistic support system for environmental hazard assessment. Hydrobiologia. In press.
Cairns, J., Jr., J. S. Crossman, K. L. Dickson & E. E. Herricks, 1971. The recovery of damaged streams. Assoc. Southeast. Biol. Bull. 18: 79–106.
Cherrett, J. M., 1988. Ecological concepts - a survey of the views of the members of the British Ecological Society. Biologist 35: 64–66.
Crossland, N. O. & C. J. M. Wolff, 1985. Fate and biological effects of pentachlorophenol in outdoor ponds. Envir. Toxicol. Chem. 4: 73–86.
deNoyelles, F., Jr. & W. D. Kettle, 1985. Experimental ponds for evaluating bioassay predictions. In T. P. Boyle (ed.), Validation and Predictability of Laboratory Methods for Assessing the Fate and Effects of Contaminants in the Environment, STP 865. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 91–103.
Doherty, F. G., 1983. Interspecies correlations of acute aquatic median lethal concentrations for four standard testing species. Envir. Sci. Technol. 17: 661–665.
Doudoroff, P., B. G. Anderson, G. E. Burdick, P. S. Galtsoff, R. Patrick, E. R. Strong, E. W. Surber & W. M. van Horn, 1951. Bio-assay for the evaluation of acute toxicity of industrial wastes to fish. Sewage Ind. Wastes 23:1380–1397.
Eaton, J., J. Arthur, R. Hermanutz, R. Kiefer, L. Mueller, R. Anderson, R. Erikson, B. Nording, J. Rogers & H. Pritchard, 1985. Biological effects of continuous and intermittent dosing of outdoor experimental streams with chlorpyrifos. In R. C. Bahner & D. J. Hansen (eds.). Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment: Eighth Symposium, STP 891. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 85–118.
Fenchel, T. & T. H. Blackburn, 1979. Bacteria and Mineral Cycling. Academic Press, N.Y., 225 pp.
Geckler, J. R., W. B. Horning, T. M. Neiheisel, Q. H. Pickering, E. L. Robinson & C. E. Stephan, 1976. Validity of laboratory tests for predicting copper toxicity in streams, EPA 600/3–76-116. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va.
Giddings, J. M., P. J. Franco, R. M. Cushman, L. A. Hook, G. R. Southworth & A. J. Stewart, 1984. Effects of chronic exposure to coal-derived oil on freshwater ecosystems: II. experimental ponds. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 3: 465–488.
Giesy, J. P. & P. M. Allred, 1985. Replicability of aquatic multispecies test systems. In J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.). Multispecies Toxicity Testing, Pergamon Press, N.Y.: 187–247.
Golley, F. B., 1986. Deep ecology from the perspective of environmental science. Envir. Ethics 9: 45–55.
Green, R. H., 1979. Sampling Design and Statistical Methods for Environmental Biologists. J. Wiley & Sons, N.Y., 257 pp.
Harper, J. L., 1982. Beyond description. In E.J. Newman (ed.), The Plant Community as a Working Mechanism. Blackwell Scientific Publishers, London: 11–25.
Hart, W. B., P. Doudoroff & J. Greenbank, 1945. The Evaluation of the Toxicity of Industrial Wastes, Chemicals and Other Substances to Freshwater Fishes. Waste Control Laboratory, Atlantic Refining Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 376 pp.
Henebry, M. S. & J. Cairns, Jr., 1984. Protozoan colonization rates and trophic status of some freshwater wetland lakes. J. Protozool. 31: 456–467.
Horning, W. B. & C. I. Weber, 1985. Short-term Methods for Estimating the Chronic Toxicity of Effluents and Receiving Waters to Freshwater Organisms. EPA/600/4–85-014. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, Oh., 162 pp.
Kenaga, E. E., 1978. Test organisms and methods useful for early assessment if acute toxicity of chemicals. Envir. Sci. Technol. 12: 1322–1329.
Lemons, J., 1985. Ecological stress phenomena and holistic environmental ethics - a viewpoint. Int. J. envir. Stud. 27: 9–30.
Macek, K. J., 1982. Aquatic toxicology: anarchy or democracy? In J. G. Pearson, R. B. Foster & W. E. Bishop (eds.), Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment. 5th Conference. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 3–8.
Maugh, T. H., 1978. Chemicals: how many are there? Science 199: 162.
Mayer, F. L. & M. R. Ellersieck, 1986. Manual for Acute Toxicity: Interpretation and Data Base for 410 Chemicals and 66 Species of Freshwater Animals. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish, and Wildlife Service, Resource Publication 160, Washington, D.C. 505 pp.
Mount, D. I., N. A. Thomas, T. J. Norberg, M. T. Barbour, T.H. Rousch & W.F. Brandes. 1984. Effluent and ambient toxicity testing and instream community response on the Ottowa River, Lima, Ohio, EPA 600/3–84-080. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. 85 pp.
National Research Council, 1981. Testing for the Effects of Chemicals on Ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 103 pp.
National Research Council, 1986. Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Problem-Solving: Concepts and Case Studies. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 338 pp.
Odum, E. P., 1969. The strategy of ecosystem development. Science 164: 262–270.
Odum, E. P., 1985. Trends expected in stressed ecosystems. Bioscience 35: 419–422.
Perez, K. T. & G. E. Morrison, 1985. Environmental assessment from simple test systems and a microcosm: comparisons of monetary costs. In J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.), Multispecies Toxicity Testing. Pergamon Press, N.Y.: 89–95.
Pratt, J. R., B. R. Niederlehner, N. J. Bowers & J. Cairns, Jr., 1987. Effects of zinc on freshwater microbial communities. In S. E. Lindberg & T. C. Hutchinson (eds). International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment, Vol. 2. CEP Consultants Ltd., Edinburgh: 324–326.
Pratt, J. R., N. J. Bowers, B. R. Niederlehner & J. Cairns, Jr., 1988. Effects of atrazine on freshwater microbial communities. Arch. Envir. Contam. Toxicol. 17: 449–457.
Sayler, G. S., M. Puziss & M. Silver, 1979. Alkaline phosphatase assay for freshwater sediments: application to perturbed sediment systems. Appl. Envir. Microbiol. 38: 922–927.
Schindler, D. W., 1987. Detecting ecosystem responses to anthropogenic stress. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44 (Suppl. 1): 6–25.
Slooff, W., 1983. Biological Effects of Chemical Pollutants in the Aquatic Environment and their Indicative Value. Dissertation, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands, 191 pp.
Sokal, R. & F. Rohlf, 1981. Biometry. W. H. Freeman & Co., N.Y., 859 pp.
Stay, F. S., D. P. Larsen, A. Kato & C. M. Rohm, 1985. Effects of atrazine on community level responses in Taub microcosms. In T. P. Boyle (ed.), Validation and Prediction of Laboratory Methods for Assessing the Fate and Effect of Contaminants in Aquatic Ecosystems, STP 865. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 75–90.
Taub, F. B., A. C. Kindig & L. L. Conquest, 1986. Preliminary resuhs of interlaboratory testing of a standardized aquatic microcosm. In J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.). Community Toxicity Testing, STP 920. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.: 93–120.
Tebo, L. B., Jr., 1985. Technical considerations related to the regulatory use of multispecies toxicity tests. In J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.), Multispecies Toxicity Testing. Pergamon Press, N.Y.: 19–26.
Wall, T. M. & R. W. Hanmer, 1987. Biological testing to control toxic water pollutants. J. Wat. Pollut. Cont. Fed. 59: 7–12.
Webster, J. R., 1979. Hierarchical organization of ecosystems. In A. Halfon (ed)., Theoretical Systems Ecology. Academic Press, N.Y.: 119–121.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1989 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this paper
Cite this paper
Cairns, J., Pratt, J.R. (1989). The scientific basis of bioassays. In: Munawar, M., Dixon, G., Mayfield, C.I., Reynoldson, T., Sadar, M.H. (eds) Environmental Bioassay Techniques and their Application. Developments in Hydrobiology, vol 54. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1896-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1896-2_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-7346-2
Online ISBN: 978-94-009-1896-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive